Nature:人工智能助力药物开发

2018-06-07 张洁 生物360

寻找新药的科学家都面临着一个大问题:开发一个新药的成本预计在 26 亿美元左右。不过其中很大一部分金钱都打水漂了,这是因为 10 个候选疗法中至少有 9 个不会上市,并在 1 期临床试验到监管批准之间的各个阶段遭遇滑铁卢。事实上,药物开发领域迫切需要一场变革。


机器学习和其它技术有望低成本,并高效地加快药物研发。

寻找新药的科学家都面临着一个大问题:开发一个新药的成本预计在 26 亿美元左右。不过其中很大一部分金钱都打水漂了,这是因为 10 个候选疗法中至少有 9 个不会上市,并在 1 期临床试验到监管批准之间的各个阶段遭遇滑铁卢。事实上,药物开发领域迫切需要一场变革。

制药巨头相信,解决方案即将到来。Pfizer 公司正在使用 IBM 公司的 Watson——一种使用机器学习的系统,来推动其免疫肿瘤药物的研究工作。Sanofi 已经和英国初创公司 Exscientia 签署了协议,付费使用 Exscientia 的人工智能(artificial-intelligence, AI)平台来寻找代谢疾病的治疗药物。而 Roche 的子公司 Genentech 正在使用 GNS Healthcare 公司的 AI 系统,帮助 Roche 开发癌症治疗药物。事实上,大部分生物制药巨头都有类似的合作或内部计划。

如果这些技术的支持者是正确的,那么 AI 和机器学习将开启一个更快、更便宜和更有效的药物研发时代。尽管有些人持怀疑态度,但大多数专家都认为,这些 AI 工具会变得越来越重要。这种转变给科学家带来了挑战和机遇,特别是把这些技术与自动化相结合,将会为药物研发带来重要变革。处于职业早期的药物开发人员尤其需要掌握 AI 技术,才能在求职市场中立于不败之地。

20 世纪 50 年代的 AI 开拓者幻想着构建可以像人一样感知、推理和思考的机器。这个概念被称为“广义 AI”,并一度风靡科幻小说领域。然而,过去 20 年,计算机处理能力的持续快速增长,大量数据集的可用性以及先进算法的开发,大大推动了机器学习的发展。由此,专注于具体任务的“狭义人工智能”得以实现。这其中就包括分析、理解和生成文本和语言的 AI 技术分析——自然语言处理技术,以及旨在模仿我们大脑理解世界的方式的人工神经网络(artificial neural network)技术。这些技术已经被广泛应用于计算机视觉、语音分析和路线选择等领域。这一进展也吸引了一大批初创公司使用 AI 进行药物开发,其中许多公司使用 AI 来识别隐藏在大量数据中的线索。

例如,美国波士顿附近的 Berg 生物技术公司的研究人员开发了一种模型,测试了 1000 多位癌症和健康人类细胞样品,确定了新的癌症机制。他们改变了细胞培养环境中的糖和氧的水平,然后追踪细胞的脂质、代谢物、酶和蛋白质谱。同时,该团队使用 AI 平台来生成和分析来自患者的大量生物学和实验数据,对比找出肿瘤细胞和健康细胞之间的关键区别。

Berg 的方法是根据疾病的确切生物学原因找到潜在的治疗方法。Berg 的联合创始人兼首席执行官 Niven Narain 表示,他们正在通过使用以患者为导向的生物学和数据来获得更多预测假设,而没有采用传统的试错方法,这相当于将药物发现范式颠倒过来。

使用这种方法,Narain 的团队确定了某些天然分子在癌症代谢中的重要性。这导致该小组发现了一条新的治疗思路,并指出了一些可能的治疗用途。该公司的候选药物 BPM31510 目前正处于临床试验 2 期,旨在治疗晚期胰腺癌患者。该公司还在使用 AI 系统寻找其它疾病的药物靶点和治疗方法,包括糖尿病和帕金森病。

总部位于伦敦的初创公司 BenevolentBio 拥有自己的 AI 平台,该平台拥有包括研究论文、专利、临床试验和患者记录等在内的诸多数据。这形成了一个以云计算为基础的,包括基因、症状、疾病、蛋白质、组织、物种和候选药物之间超过 10 亿个关联的网络。用户可以像搜索引擎一样查询,得到诸如疾病和与之相关的基因或已显示有影响的药物的“知识图谱”。该平台的大部分数据都没有注释,所以它使用自然语言处理来识别各个元素,并理解它们与其它事物之间的联系。BenevolentBio 首席执行官 Jackie Hunter 指出,人工智能可以把所有这些数据都整合在一起,并为药物发现科学家提供最重要的信息。

当 BenevolentBio 公司要求该系统寻找治疗肌萎缩侧索硬化症(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS,也被称为运动神经元病,motor neuron disease, MND)的新方法时,该 AI 平台指出,约 100 种现有化合物可能有效。随后,BenevolentBio 的科学家从中选择了 5 种,接着从英国谢菲尔德转化神经科学研究所(Sheffield Institute of Translational Neuroscience)拿到来自患者的细胞,开展了测试实验。2017 年 12 月,科学家在马萨诸塞州波士顿举行的 ALS/MND 国际研讨会(International Symposium on ALS/MND)上发布了这项研究的成果,指出这些化合物中,4 种具有治疗潜力,1 种可以延缓小鼠的神经症状。

模式识别

尽管这些应用非常有前景,但仍有许多科学家不了解人工智能的功能。加拿大多伦多一家专门为科学家寻找抗体而提供机器学习工具的初创公司 BenchSci 于 2 月发布的一项调查显示,参与调研的 330 名药物研发研究人员中有 41% 不熟悉 AI 机制(go.nature.com/2xarpt3)。

该领域的先锋认为,研究人员应该尽快掌握这些知识。

2015 年,中国上海的药物研发公司药明康德(WuXi AppTec)收购了冰岛 deCODE Genetics 公司的子公司 NextCODE Health,成立了 Wuxi NextCODE。位于马萨诸塞州剑桥市的 WuXi NextCODE 的一个团队的负责人 Thomas Chittenden 指出,人工智能将让我们全面理解人类生物学,并为我们提供解决人类疾病的方法。他还表示,他们开发药物并在临床试验中进行评估药物的方式都属于非常复杂的模式识别。

2017 年 5 月,包括耶鲁大学(Yale University)研究人员在内的研究小组证明了成纤维细胞生长因子(fibroblast growth factors, FGF)蛋白质家族在血管新生中的作用(P. Yu et al. Nature 545, 224–228; 2017)。血管新生对于肿瘤生长和心血管疾病都很关键。WuXi NextCODE 使用 AI,根据作用和其它属性对基因进行分类,从而寻找 RNA 序列的变异、表达水平、分子功能和基因位置之间的联系。 Chittenden 的研究小组利用这种方法发现,FGF 通过控制葡萄糖代谢来影响血管新生。

一些研究人员认为 AI 可以查明以前未知的疾病原因,这将加速个性化治疗。Hunter 表示,个性化药物已经被讨论了很长时间了。AI 就像一把钥匙,给我们打开了这扇门。

怀疑论者指出,这种 AI 热不过是 20 世纪 80 年代初开始的计算机辅助药物设计的炒作的继续。虽然这种计算机模拟技术在现代药物研发中很重要,但它们也未能阻止于 20 世纪 90 年代中期开始的制药工业研发生产力的下降趋势。

不断发展

行业大牛认为,无论未来会怎样,药物发现工作和所需的技能都不太可能会维持原样。有人认为需要更广泛的培训。Narain 指出,博士和其他研究生课程的开展方式“需要有一个彻底的转变”,并且应该延伸到医学院校和本科教学。他补充提出,学生专注于——并且比其他人更了解——特定的基因突变的时代已经结束了。Chittenden 对此表示赞同,他认为,10 年之后的博士生会与现在有很大的差别。他们接受的学术课程将更广泛。下一代博士生首先需要理解人类生物学,此外还需要了解计算机科学、计算统计学和机器学习。

其他研究人员则认为,这意味着在不偏离专业核心领域的情况下,丰富基础知识。加州斯坦福大学(Stanford University)生物医学人工智能研究人员 Russ Altman 指出,生物学本科生需要掌握统计学和计算机方面的基本知识。博士生则需要掌握深厚的技术技能。对于博士生来说,重要的是深度了解,而非广泛涉猎。

2003 年,Altman 等人为希望深入研究这两个学科的学生开设了生物医学计算学士学位。他所在的生物工程学院于当年 3 月开学时启动了这个项目。Altman 认为,斯坦福大学(University of Oxford)似乎能更早地预测到未来全球高校会发生的事情。

从 10 年前至今,科学家都无法就 AI 会如何影响药物开发达成共识。英国牛津大学(University of Oxford)的计算药物化学家 Anthony Bradley 表示,至少未来 5 到 10 年内,编程仍然是一种有用的技能,但他感觉再远一点,计算机可能会成为编程的主力。在实验室中,我们可能需要一支训练有素的编程专业人员,与自动化和人工智能专家合作,对现有药物的开发过程进行微调。或许 10 年后,生物学实验技能(展开生物或化学试验的操作技能)可能就毫无用处了。

Bradley 使用牛津大学附近的 Diamond Light Source 同步加速器来筛选与化学分子靶点结合的小分子。哪怕两者之间的结合非常微弱,研究人员也可以通过提高其结合强度以产生新的治疗方法。Bradley 所在的牛津大学蛋白信息学团队(Oxford Protein Informatics Group)正使用人工神经网络——一种模拟人类大脑处理信息算法,来开展一个基于结构设计药物的项目。该团队利用公开可用的小分子结构和化学活性数据来培训 AI 系统,令其识别那些可能作用于蛋白靶标的分子。

那些希望从事药物开发领域的人需要做好哪些准备来应对这些变化?行业大牛指出,加深对 AI 的了解,头脑灵活很重要。Bradley 表示,虽然他大概知道这个领域的变化趋势,但他还是要让学生自己去了解技术趋势的发展方向。只有保持多才多艺,你才能充分利用现有工具的力量。他的建议是,要做药物研发,就要多阅读顶级杂志关于 AI 的最新文献和新闻,以跟踪行业动态。

Bradley 指出,自我驱动的学习尤其重要,因为大学在这个过程中的作用是有限的。从根本上来讲,谁也讲不清楚到底需要掌握哪些技能,才能不被 AI 替代。

一些关于 AI 变革药物研发的言论可能只是炒作。批评者指出,都是商业利益在起作用,毕竟至今还没有 AI 开发的药物获得批准。认为技术将推动重大进步的 Narain 认为,尽管某些说法似乎太过夸张,但是很快就会见真章。他指出,炒作不会持续很长时间,因为在未来五年左右,我们就能通过数据获知真相。如果那时我们能够开发更好的药物,并且效率更高,成本更低,那么此时 AI 就能真正革新整个领域了。

更多阅读:机器人来了

如果要书写人工智能的历史,那么很可能要提到 2007 年 6 月 12 日的一个算法。那天,一个名叫亚当(Adam)的机器人通过鉴定酵母基因的功能,宣布了人类对科学知识发现的垄断时代的终结。

通过搜索公共数据库,Adam 指出了关于编码催化酿酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)反应的关键酶的基因的假说,并且使用机器人在实验室中开展试验,验证它的假说。英国亚伯大学(Aberystwyth University)和剑桥大学(University of Cambridge)的研究人员随后独立测试了 Adam 的关于 19 种基因功能的假设,结果显示,其中 9 个基因是新的,并且功能假设是正确的;只有 1 个是错的。

剑桥大学的系统生物学家、Adam 的开发成员之一 Steve Oliver 表示,使用人工智能的机器人科学家可以测试更多的化合物,并且可以提高准确性和重复性,并建立详细的、可查询的记录。 今年 1 月,Adam 的开发团队宣布,一个比 Adam 更先进的机器人夏娃(Eve)发现了三氯生(triclosan,一种常见的牙膏成分)可以治疗耐药疟疾寄生虫。他们开发出一种工程化酵母菌株,其基因组中对其存活起关键作用的一个基因已被来自疟疾寄生虫或人类的基因替代,最后得到的菌株的生长严重依赖于被引入的人类或疟疾寄生虫基因。随后,Eve 筛选了数千种化合物,并找到了那些可以阻断或延缓含有疟疾寄生虫基因的菌株的生长,但不影响那些含有人类基因的菌株(降低毒性风险的同时瞄准寄生虫)的化合物。然后这些化合物可以进入后续的筛选测试。

实验发现,三氯生可以通过抑制 DHFR 酶——DHFR 酶也是抗疟药乙胺嘧啶的靶标——l 来影响疟疾寄生虫的生长。但是,乙胺嘧啶的耐药性很常见。研究人员表明,即使寄生虫对乙胺嘧啶产生了抵抗,三氯生依然可能有效。

原始出处:Nic Fleming. (2018) How artificial intelligence is changing drug discovery. Nature, 557: S55-S57. 

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    2018-07-17 yangchou

    人工智能是未来医药领域发展的方向.

    0

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    2018-06-28 yangchou

    人工智能应用于新药研发可大幅降低成本.

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    2018-09-16 liye789132251
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    2018-06-08 kafei

    学习学习谢谢分享

    0

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    2018-06-08 lou.minghong

    学习.谢谢分享!

    0

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    2018-06-08 三生有幸9135

    学习一下谢谢

    0

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    2018-06-08 飛歌

    学习了很有用

    0

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