需有创操作的重症患者凝血功能障碍的识别与处理

2018-09-05 于占彪 重症医学

简介 重症患者凝血功能异常较为普遍,而这些患者常需行有创操作。对于这些患者,临床医生希望能将其出血并发症的风险减到最小。所以,预防性输注血小板和血浆较为常见。这篇综述,将探索这些观点的本质,以及多少证据支持这些观点。我们将讨论,如果一家医院,其凝血功能化验不能有效的预测出血风险,那操作相关的低出血风险的管理会较为复杂。这篇文章也对预防性输注血小板和血浆的作用以及如何纠正药物导致的凝血障碍


简介

重症患者凝血功能异常较为普遍,而这些患者常需行有创操作。对于这些患者,临床医生希望能将其出血并发症的风险减到最小。所以,预防性输注血小板和血浆较为常见。这篇综述,将探索这些观点的本质,以及多少证据支持这些观点。我们将讨论,如果一家医院,其凝血功能化验不能有效的预测出血风险,那操作相关的低出血风险的管理会较为复杂。这篇文章也对预防性输注血小板和血浆的作用以及如何纠正药物导致的凝血障碍都进行了回顾。需要新的策略来优化循证医学,包括:新的方法学或者应用临床评分系统。

危重病定义的性质,本就彰显了其预后差的风险较大,比如:出血、血栓形成。实际上,出血和促凝,两种状态并不互相排斥,并且,还会发生出血和血栓形成同时存在的复杂的凝血模式。任何减少出血风险的干预措施都需适当的权衡其治疗相关风险。上文提到的输血,同样会发生不良事件,如:容量过负荷,输血相关的急性肺损伤,输血传播的感染

操作前输注血小板和血浆非常普遍,可以总结为以下几种观点:1.患者异常的化验结果,会导致操作后出血风险高。2.化验检查结果预测出血风险。3.输注血小板、血浆可以降低出血风险。4.输血的益处多于其带来的风险。这些观点,在临床指南和推荐意见里面不同程度的存在着,这可能会促进特定的化验指标,作为预防性输血的阈值,即使支持输血的证据并不充足。

实例为证,2009年,在英国的一项调查研究中,将两种病人情景提供给2700名国家重症监护专业协会成员,一种是:没有出血的凝血障碍的脓毒症患者;另一种是:没有出血的肝硬化合并凝血障碍的重症患者。对进行中心静脉置管前,是否需要预防性输注新鲜冰冻血浆,进行意见征集。情景一:52%的受访者表示,如果患者没有出血或者不需要操作的话,他们不会常规输注新鲜冰冻血浆,或者采取某些干预措施。但当计划置入中心静脉导管的时候,仅有9%的受访者表示不进行处理(P<0,01)。在受试者中,根据INR值选择是否输血,其阈值范围变化很广,大部分人选择INR值在2.0到2.4之间。对于情景二:结果类似。80%的受试者表示:在腰椎穿刺、硬膜外置管、颅内压监测、气管切开术前,会常规处理凝血功能障碍;54%的受试者表示:在置入胸腔引流管前,也会做出相应处理。这些回答表明,大家基本都支持预防性输血治疗。

这篇文章中,我们将阐述重症患者凝血障碍的识别和管理。我们将会涉及:化验检查识别出血风险增加的能力,有创操作的出血风险和发生率,以及支持干预能够改善出血风险的证据。我们将会总结研究中突出的问题。

重症患者凝血障碍和血小板减少症的定义和发生率

凝血障碍的定义是:血液凝固能力受损的状态。定义可能有不同的含义:体外凝血功能受损VS体内凝血功能受损。在临床实践中,经常应用“凝血紊乱”“凝血障碍”等词来描述患者异常的传统化验结果,常用的是:血小板计数,APTT,PT,INR。

重症患者中,凝血功能异常较为普遍。在前瞻性多中心研究中(ISOC-1),入住英国综合重症监护室治疗的患者中,30%的患者INR延长(延长的INR定义为:INR>1.5)。大部分INR仅轻度异常(1.5-2.6)且持续时间短暂,将近70%的高INR值在1.6-2.5之间。对于脓毒症、高龄、妇女、高APCHII评分、慢性肝脏疾病、透析依赖性肾衰竭等患者,其INR延长的可能性更大。住ICU治疗期间,中度血小板减少(<50 X 10^9/L)很常见,大概占5%-20%。目前来自牛津大学医院NHS信托基金的统计数据显示(未发布),19%的入住ICU的患者,血小板计数最低值<100 X 10^9/L。

凝血功能异常的重症患者中操作相关出血风险的评估

血小板计数和凝血监测预测出血风险的局限性

对于有出血史或者怀疑遗传疾病的患者,APTT和PT可对凝血因子缺乏进行筛查。导致PT和APTT异常的因素众多,但可能和出血风险不相关,包括凝血因子的水平的变化,或者作为急性期反应的一部分;例如,凝血因子VIII增加,能缩短APTT。凝血的效果,也和对不同凝血因子减少程度的敏感性相关。例如,XII和IX轻微减少,APTT则明显延长,而PT对多种促凝因子的轻度度缺乏均敏感,这在临床实践中常见,其临床意义值得怀疑。总体来说,他们在预测操作相关的出血风险时的临床意义,存在局限性,当然,在重症患者中这种异常范围常见(INR 1.5-2.0)。

一些医生,以某个INR数值,作为输注血液制品的阈值。典型的是大于正常值的1.5倍。INR以PT为基础,可用于监测维生素K拮抗剂的治疗。在肝脏疾病的患者中,INR超过1.3-1.9的范围,其平均因子水平从31%到65%(因子II),40%至70%(因子V),22%到60%(因子VII)。在重症患者中,INR值在1.5到2.2波动,其凝血因子水平的范围相似。所有的这些凝血因子水平,与充足的凝血因子浓度相一致,可在多种临床情况下利于止血。因此,对规律服用维生素K拮抗剂的患者可监测INR,但对重症患者出血风险的评估,此方法并没有得到验证。

单独的血小板计数,在预测血液病患者出血风险方面存在局限性,在血液病患者中,很多关于血小板的临床研究已经得以实施。Friedmann等人,报道了大量关于血小板减少患者的回顾性研究,并没有发现在第一次或最低血小板计数和严重出血风险之间存在关系。PLADO研究,是一个随机对照试验,其患者接受干细胞移植或者接受化疗,随机分为输注血小板低(1.1X1011/m2)、中(2.2X1011/m2) 、高(4.4X1011/m2)剂量组,当监测血小板计数≤10X109/L时,进行输注,显示出相似的结论:晨起血小板计数和出血之间关系不大。血小板减少症容易识别,和死亡率相关,和危重患者住院时间相关,但是在不同的血小板阈值下,关于出血风险高低的数据较少。

重症患者血小板减少因素众多,其病理生理过程能够反应血小板的改变,消耗/利用,淤积在脾脏和肝脏。出血风险增加,可能是由并发症、脓毒症、炎症反应、肾衰、肝衰、应用多种药物等复合因素导致。血小板消耗增加可能和弥散性血管内凝血相关或不相关。重症患者的病情可能会导致血小板功能障碍,并不仅仅表现为血小板数目的变化。血小板功能障碍,可能是出血的主要因素,无论是否其计数>50X109/L,但在常规治疗过程中并不能评估血小板功能。总之,在指南中,单独将血小板计数,作为重症患者接受有创操作出血风险的参考指标,存在局限性。

血栓弹力试验

传统化验存在局限性,但人们对其他评估凝血功能的方法或整体的评估仍很感兴趣。血栓弹性描记图(TEG)或血栓弹力图评估整个血栓形成的过程、凝状的坚固性、溶解状态。因此可以提供体外凝血状态的监测。对于没有活动性出血的重症患者,可观察其低凝状态和高凝状态。对脓毒症患者中能观察到,纤维蛋白原功能低下和血栓形成的最大幅度以及出血的进展之间存在着联系。除此之外,根据血栓弹力图的变量(凝血时间,角度,最大幅度)提示的低凝状态,也会显示出血风险增加。然而,高质量的研究显示,在操作相关出血的重症患者中,应用弹力试验评估出血风险能力欠佳。已有报道称,对心外科术后及创伤后的患者来说,在指导输血治疗方面,应用血栓弹力图比标准化验更加有利。但在ICU中预测出血,其阈值尚未界定。根据研究,应用弹力试验来界定创伤、肝硬化患者的出血风险,但经厂家提供的参考值很少应用于ICU。因此,对于ICU患者来说,需要进一步规范并且评估CUTOFF值来指导预防性输血。在一项研究中,应用血栓弹力图指导肝硬化患者凝血功能异常的纠正,结果减少了其血液制品的输注,并且没有增加操作相关的出血并发症。在这个阶段,并不支持常规应用弹力试验来预测操作相关的出血并发症。

预防性输血的实施

多种调查显示,操作前预防性输注新鲜冰冻血浆(FFP)和血小板在重症医师中十分普遍。在英国,15%PT延长的重症患者,操作前都预防性输注FFP。荷兰的一些年代较久远的研究显示结果相似。在针对重症医师的情景调查研究中,大部分表示,在ICU进行操作前(置入中心静脉导管、胸腔引流管、气管切开术),会预防性纠正INR。最近的一项针对儿科ICU医师的国际统计显示,预防性应用新鲜冰冻血浆仍然十分普遍,约占2/3的受试者,并且输注原因是凝血功能化验异常。

血小板减少的重症患者中,2/3的输注血小板为预防性输注。在2006年的研究中,为预防操作相关出血而开始预防性输注血小板的阈值是46 X 10^9/L。最近荷兰的一项研究显示,置入CVC之前,重症医师决定预防性输注血小板的阈值是20 X 10^9/L,表明随着临床的实践,输注血小板的阈值已经下降。仅有2%的被调查医师对应用单一的血小板抑制的患者进行剂预防性输注血小板,17%的医生对连用两种血小板抑制剂的患者进行预防性输注。目前指南推荐,进行有创操作前,血小板计数应大于20-100 X 10^9/L,但对这项推荐并没有高质量证据支持。

ICU常规干预措施的出血风险

中心静脉导管

重症患者置入中心静脉导管,其中3%-30%的操作存在轻度出血风险(渗血和皮肤血肿),而这个数据根据医师的经验,置管的部位,是否超声引导而有所差异。需要进行处理的大出血非常少见,大约0-0.2%。重症儿童患者的研究显示发生率相似。操作前INR>1.5不增加中心静脉置管的出血风险。最近的British Society Haematology 指南中,有17个观察性研究记录了血小板减少患者置入中心静脉导管后的出血情况,指南对这几个研究进行了确认。在这些研究汇中,8050名患者中仅有1例严重出血(血红蛋白下降大于1.5g/L)。一项回顾性研究显示,血小板减少的血液病患者的置入中心静脉导管,其轻度出血(渗血和血肿)风险约为30%,和血小板计数在20-150 X 109/L之间的类似。应用多变量分析,归因于延长的PT,置管部位和临床出血风险因素,最终发现,病人血小板计数大于20 X 109/L,轻度出血风险增加(OR 2.88;95%CI 1.23-6.75;P=0.015)。研究中没有大出血的报道。在另一系列血小板减少患者中,置入隧道式中心静脉导管,通过简单按压置管部位,出血得到了有效的控制。在小的系列研究中,延长的INR和低血小板计数同时存在,并没有增加中心静脉导管置入后的出血风险。

胸腔引流管/胸腔穿刺术

置入胸腔引流管的患者,轻微出血的风险约占2.6%,严重出血占0.2%。在一项研究中,由经验丰富的放射科医师置入胸腔引流管,患者INR大于1.5或低血小板计数(<50 X 109/L),或者两者情况均存在,并没有发现会增加出血风险。一项针对130名接受胸腔穿刺术的患者的单中心研究显示,未纠正的升高的INR,血小板减少症,或应用抗凝药如:华法林、肝素、氯吡格雷,并没有发生严重出血的并发症。在一项209名胸腔引流管患者的回顾性研究中,延长的PT 和APTT与正常的相比,出血风险没有变化。在另一项关于恶性血液病患者的回顾性研究中显示,这些患者置入胸腔引流管,延长的PT和APTT并没有增加出血风险。

经皮气管切开术

一项单中心的回顾性研究显示,581名经皮气切患者,轻度出血风险约占4%,重度出血风险(需要外科干预)约占0.3%。在一项小的回顾性研究中,血小板计数小于50 X 109/L的重症患者,经皮气切的大出血风险(需输血)约占2%。在一项小的队列研究中,患者罹患肝脏疾病,气切的总体出血风险占2.6%。凝血功能异常患者(INR延长,低血小板计数)和正常患者相比,并没有差异。

中枢神经系统操作

置入颅内压监测装置的出血风险在0-20%之间。在一项157名接受颅内压监测的患者的回顾性研究中,正常INR与延长的INR相比出血风险无差异。置入脑室引流管的出血风险范围在0-41%。在一项回顾性研究中,就出血概率而言,INR达到1.6是可以接受的。一项5223名急性淋巴细胞白血病儿童腰椎穿刺的观察性研究显示,尽管941例操作是在血小板低于50 X 109/L进行的,但并没有发现严重的并发症。只有29例是在血小板小于10 X 109/L的情况下进行的。

关于降低有创操作出血并发症干预措施的证据

中心静脉导管

在一项针对INR增高(1.5-3.0)的重症患者的研究中,操作前以15ml/kg的剂量输注新鲜冰冻血浆,不能影响出血并发症的发生(n=58)。然而这项试验由于招募患者缓慢而被迫停止。进一步分析这种剂量的新鲜冰冻血浆对凝血平衡的影响,结果显示并不能说明新鲜冰冻血浆有止血效果,并且无论是否存在轻度出血,凝血指标没有差异。没有完全的随机对照试验表示,在置入中心静脉导管前需要纠正血小板减少。一些关于中心静脉置管并发症的综述报道称:超声引导可以减少并发症的发生率。目前,一项随机试验将研究在血小板计数小于10-50 X 109/L且不输注血小板的情况下,由训练有素的临床医师,在超声引导下置入中心静脉导管的出血并发症的多少。

胸腔引流管/胸腔穿刺术

没有随机对照试验指出,对于凝血功能异常的重症患者,置入胸腔引流管前,需要预防性输血。一个大型单中心的回顾性研究评估了1009名在超声引导下行胸腔穿刺术的患者,其中患者的INR>1.6或血小板计数小于50 X 109/L,结果显示,输注血小板和新鲜冰冻血浆不能改善出血并发症的风险。关于胸部操作的重症患者的研究比较少,在之前提到的随机输注新鲜冰冻血浆试验中,19名患者置入了胸腔引流管,其中11名患者预防性输注了新鲜冰冻血浆,8名患者没有输注。一名未接受新鲜冰冻血浆输注的患者,在超声引导下置入胸膜导管后,发生了严重出血(血胸)。

经皮气管切开术

一项随机对照试验(n=72),纳入患者存在轻度凝血异常(PT 14.7-20.0秒/血小板计数40-100 X 109/L/阿司匹林),是否输注血浆/血小板,对两组失血无影响。然而,这项试验因招募患者数目不足而提前结束。在一项随机对照试验中,操作前预防性输注新鲜冰冻血浆,10名患者接受经皮气管切开术,每组各5名患者,没有发现术后出血有统计学差异。需指出的是,经皮气切和手术气切两种技术相比,大出血发生情况无差异。

中枢神经系统操作

两个小的观察性研究(n=157,n=,19)显示,对INR增加的患者,预防性输注新鲜冰冻血浆效果欠佳。人们普遍认为,异常凝血功能反应中枢神经系统(CNS)出血风险增加,所以CNS操作不可能成为前瞻随机对照试验的主题。需指出的是,关于CNS操作的安全的INR或APTT阈值并没有确立。在一项大型观察性研究中,针对儿科血液病患者,进行了超过5000例的腰椎穿刺,在低血小板计数的(10-50 X 109/L)的患者中,并发症的发生率并不高。也没有随机对照试验指出,行腰椎穿刺或置入硬膜外导管时,需输注血小板的安全阈值。

综合考虑,没有证据表明,常见的有创操作需要预防性输注新鲜冰冻血浆。预防性输注新鲜冰冻血浆会缩短延长的INR,但并不明确和降低出血风险有何关系。所以,对凝血功能障碍的重症患者,输注15ml/kg剂量的血浆不能改变促凝状态下的凝血平衡。因为常规有创操作后发生严重出血的概率较低,尤其是由经验丰富的临床大夫在超声引导下操作的时候。常规应用FFP来改善出血风险可能并不能获益。除此之外,FFP输注存在风险。例如:一项对ICU患者输注FFP的单中心回顾性队列研究,Dara等人确认住ICU期间INR≥1.5的患者,并评估亚组中没有活动性出血患者应用FFP的效果。除了FFP输注实践中的变化外,作者观察到,接受FFP的患者出血率与对照组相似,但是输注48h后,急性肺损伤的发生率偏高。重症患者,一些存在炎症反应,在接受大量血液制品后,可能更易于发生急性肺损伤,虽然,将这情况与其他并发症(如容量过负荷)进行区分并不容易。虽然这些发现并不能证明存在因果关系,但鉴于其能对患者造成损害,所以需要再次强调对不合理应用FFP关注的必要性。虽然证据质量并不高,并且都是基于观察性数据,但类似的结论适用于血小板减少症的患者。对于中心静脉置管,血小板计数小于20X109/L出血风险会增加。对于可以缓和出血风险的其他干预措施以及血小板阈值,尚没有研究进行分析。

药物导致的凝血功能障碍

与患者单纯的轻度或中度凝血功能异常不同,应用抗血小板药物和抗凝药物会增加出血风险。在接受选择性有创操作的病人中,会暂停这些药物的应用,医生认为停用了这些药物可以减少出血风险。但是药效完全消失的时间很长,而ICU患者一般需要紧急行有创操作,临床医生会面临选择:对抗凝患者直接进行操作或者通过某些拮抗剂来扭转凝血功能障碍。以上两种情况都与缺乏大量的相关知识有关。

一方面,对ICU中心静脉置管、胸腔引流管等有创操作来说,残余的抗凝功能到何种程度可以接受并不明确。另一方面,应用干预措施扭转抗凝效果或者应用拮抗抗血小板药物,还没有在随机对照试验中进行测试,暂时没有临床结果。大部分数据都是基于观察替代指标,最常见的是观察对凝血参数的影响。

抗血小板药物

很好的证据表明,应用阿司匹林治疗的患者,有创操作是安全的,在一项非心脏手术的10000名患者的研究中,围手术期应用阿司匹林,增加了23%的严重出血的相对风险,但是绝对风险增加了0.8%,其他包括死亡在内的围手术期的并发症发生率相似。阿司匹林也和ADP/P2Y12受体拮抗剂(氯吡格雷、普拉格雷、替格瑞洛)联合应用。冠脉旁路移植术前5天应用双联抗血小板治疗,会增加50%的出血风险。指南建议,联合应用双联抗血小板药物时应避免行择期手术。相似的是,欧洲麻醉指南,推荐,停用ADP受体拮抗剂后至少5-7天,才能进行神经轴穿刺,尽管这条推荐意见是基于病例报道和病理生理过程的推理。

恢复血小板功能的干预措施

双联抗血小板治疗的重症患者,经常考虑输注血小板来拮抗,尽管这种方法的安全性和有效性尚待证明。然而,和这个讨论相关的是最近一项针对自发性颅内出血患者的研究,这个前瞻随机对照试验,招募服用抗血小板药物的颅内出血患者,主要观察结果是存活和神经恢复。最终190名患者,随机分配至输注血小板组(拮抗药物效果),和标准治疗组。研究显示,3个月的时候,输注血小板组的神经预后差,且死亡风险是对照组的2倍,输注血小板预后差的原因并不清楚。预后差可能和血肿范围扩大相关,自相矛盾的是,输注血小板是为了减少其血肿范围。对于服用抗血小板药物治疗的颅内出血的患者,临床医师需要对预防性输注血小板分外谨慎。有人可能会争论,将这个实验中自发性出血患者的证据,用于推测非出血的需有创操作的ICU患者,是否可靠,但是这项研究可以质疑输注血小板逆转抗血小板药物的能力。

某种药物也许作为替代预防性输注血小板的选择,去氨加压素是根据垂体后叶素合成,可以刺激凝血因子VIII和血友病因子的释放,可有效治疗轻度A型血友病患者和1型血管性血友病患者的出血并发症。增加的血管性血友病因子,可以改善初期止血,并且根据血小板功能检测结果显示,还可以抵消抗血小板药物的作用。但是,针对服用抗血小板药物的患者应用去氨加压素能否获益并不明确,并且对于存在动脉粥样硬化风险因素的患者,会发生动脉闭塞。目前英国正在进行一项研究,目的是探索在需要有创操作的血小板减少的患者中,应用去氨加压素能发挥什么作用。

拮抗普通肝素和低分子肝素

诸如中心静脉置管、胸腔置管、经皮气切等有创操作,可在应用低分子肝素预防剂量的ICU患者中实施,出血风险较低。对于神经轴穿刺,欧洲指南谨慎的推荐:预防性应用低分子肝素后的12小时内禁止穿刺,因为12小时后抗凝血因子X的作用可忽略不计。应用治疗剂量的低分子肝素的患者,在性择期手术时,如果术前12h停用,则不增加出血风险。然而,研究评估了残余的抗凝血因子X的活性显示,术前12小时接受最后一剂低分子肝素的患者中,90%的患者,手术时可检测到的抗凝活性,其中34%的患者仍然存在治疗活性。虽然再一次显示出,在有创操作期间,缺乏可接受的残余抗凝活性的相关知识,指南建议,对于择期手术,可将时间间隔延长至24小时,神经穿刺同理。应用普通肝素治疗的患者,根据其清除半衰期,术前4-6小时停用肝素即可。对于ICU有创操作来说,是否缩短肝素停用时间尚不明确。

鱼精蛋白能够不可逆的结合肝素,可以引起肝素-抗凝血酶复合体的分离,鱼精蛋白可完全中和普通肝素的抗凝血因子Xa的活性,但是只能部分逆转低分子肝素的作用,根据低分子肝素表面硫酸盐的电荷密度的不同,50%-80%的抗凝血因子Xa活性被中和。虽然鱼精蛋白的中和效果得到很好的了解,但还没有研究探索,有创操作前,预防性逆转肝素作用能否带来益处。但是,鱼精蛋白不能中和达那肝素和黄达肝葵钠的抗凝血因子Xa的活性。鱼精蛋白的主要副作用是过敏反应,对呼吸的影响,以及心血管的影响:如低血压和心动过缓。冠状动脉旁路移植术的患者,这些不良反应的发生率约10%。

拮抗口服抗凝药物

尽管门诊患者口服抗凝药物应用普遍,但在重症患者中应用并不频繁。这些药物包括维生素K拮抗剂和新型口服抗凝剂。ICU患者的一大挑战是,普遍应用抗生素,且抗生素与肠菌群产生的维生素K存在相互作用,导致INR水平的波动。

维生素K拮抗剂(VKAs)的作用能被维生素K拮抗,使INR值24h内达到正常化,静脉输注效果更快。凝血酶原复合物(PCC)富含维生素K依赖的凝血因子,对于危及生命的出血患者,或者需要紧急有创操作的患者,可立即拮抗VAKs。在一项202名患者的随机对照试验中,针对紧急逆转VKAs的效果,将PCC与血浆进行对比。虽然PCC使INR恢复正常的速率较血浆快(PCC几乎是立刻,血浆需24h),但两种方法止血效果相似,这再次说明,凝血指标的正常化不能代表改善预后。

直接口服的抗凝药可分为,直接凝血因子Xa拮抗剂(阿哌沙班、依度沙班、利伐沙班),和直接的凝血酶抑制剂(达比加群),这些药物与维生素K拮抗剂相比,显示出有利的风险/收益,越来越多的的人将其作为治疗心房纤颤、静脉血栓栓塞的首选药物。对于维生素K拮抗剂,需要超过24h药效才能消退,导致其在ICU中应用不切实际。和不同类型PT/APTT药物的应用相似,在新型直接口服抗凝药物中,PT和APTT的敏感性并不相同,也没有监测可以提供药物的可靠浓度。尽管存在更具体的试验能量化DOAC血药浓度(为达比加群校准稀释凝血酶时间和为凝血因子Xa抑制剂校准抗凝血因子Xa活性),但这些监测不能立刻获得,合适的血浆目标浓度并未确定。Idarucizumab是抗体片段,能够结合并且清除达比加群,因此被批准作为急诊室的拮抗剂。相似的是,andexanet alfa 目前作为凝血因子Xa抑制剂的拮抗剂,如低分子肝素和黄达肝葵钠。虽然andexanet alfa能立即拮抗凝血因子Xa抑制剂的效果,但也没有证据表明其可以改善预后。

总结和未来展望

让临床医师和研究人员进退两难的是,重症患者行有创操作时减少出血风险的策略,是基于测量血小板计数和PT/INR制定的。尽管,这并不包含所有相关的患者以及操作相关的出血风险,但在繁忙的重症监护室临床实践中,以此对操作前预防性输血阈值进行界定,实施方便。然而,一些患者也许不能从预防性输注血小板和血浆中获益,另一些患者即使不预防性输注血小板和血浆也可能不出血。出血风险可能不会发生很大的变化,例如,血小板计数低于某个数值,INR值超过某个阈值。因此,根据实验室化验结果进行预防性输血经常效果欠佳。随着对重症患者输血相关的发病率和死亡率认识的加深,可能进一步导致不利的风险利益平衡。

进一步来讲,我们需要更好的方法评估有创操作后的出血风险。除了实验室检查,基于logistic回归的加权算法模型组成的临床因素,包括:肝脏功能,肾脏损伤,药物情况,营养状态,炎症程度,超声的应用,个人操作的经验水平等,也许能够改善风险评估。综合这些因素,可以对ICU患者进行有创操作出血风险的评估。应用一个可靠有效的风险评分来预测操作相关出血,可能会促进目前的临床工作的实施。

关于其处理,未来需要随机对照试验来评估预防性输注血浆的作用,为获得强有力的统计学数据需要大量的病人,也可能因为这样那样的挑战而不能实施。也需要开发可替代的和创新的方法研究设计。重症患者中输注FFP没有改变凝血平衡,使凝血功能向着促凝的方向发展。对于轻中度延长的INR患者和需低操作风险的患者,很难判断他们是否需要以标准剂量常规预防性输注FFP。同样的考虑适用于非出血患者中预防性血小板的输注,目前没有高质量证据表明,哪种血小板计数是增加操作相关出血风险的阈值。需要进一步的研究来评估预防性输注血小板降低ICU患者出血风险的必要性。

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authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=http://cacheapi.medsci.cn/resource/upload/20160905/IMG57CD39B82D12E7926.jpg, createdBy=ac2c1946830, createdName=青龙偃月, createdTime=Wed Sep 05 15:11:42 CST 2018, time=2018-09-05, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=342905, encodeId=b6a9342905b3, content=好文章,谢谢分享!, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=71, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=http://cacheapi.medsci.cn/resource/upload/20160905/IMG57CD39B82D12E7926.jpg, createdBy=ac2c1946830, createdName=青龙偃月, createdTime=Wed Sep 05 15:11:35 CST 2018, time=2018-09-05, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=342904, encodeId=597034290466, content=好文章,谢谢分享!, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=0, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=http://cacheapi.medsci.cn/resource/upload/20160905/IMG57CD39B82D12E7926.jpg, createdBy=ac2c1946830, createdName=青龙偃月, createdTime=Wed Sep 05 15:11:31 CST 2018, time=2018-09-05, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2018-09-05 青龙偃月

    好文章,谢谢分享!

    0

  6. [GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1741124, encodeId=90911e41124ce, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=844f31314b7' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#凝血功能障碍#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=61, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=31314, encryptionId=844f31314b7, topicName=凝血功能障碍)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=b75a34868560, createdName=ms6279672939590805, createdTime=Wed Mar 13 20:31:00 CST 2019, time=2019-03-13, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1269755, encodeId=91ae1269e552b, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=b85e313130a' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#凝血功能#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=49, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=31313, encryptionId=b85e313130a, topicName=凝血功能)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, createdBy=b09892, createdName=qidongfanjian, createdTime=Fri Sep 07 01:31:00 CST 2018, time=2018-09-07, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1284043, encodeId=f8e8128404325, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=cdb79594643' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#重症患者#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=24, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=95946, encryptionId=cdb79594643, topicName=重症患者)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, createdBy=6c3a189, createdName=longqijun248, createdTime=Fri Sep 07 01:31:00 CST 2018, time=2018-09-07, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1421183, encodeId=465a142118320, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=09d33294eb8' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#功能障碍#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=31, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, 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authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=http://cacheapi.medsci.cn/resource/upload/20160905/IMG57CD39B82D12E7926.jpg, createdBy=ac2c1946830, createdName=青龙偃月, createdTime=Wed Sep 05 15:11:31 CST 2018, time=2018-09-05, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2018-09-05 青龙偃月

    好文章,谢谢分享!

    0

  7. [GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1741124, encodeId=90911e41124ce, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=844f31314b7' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#凝血功能障碍#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=61, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=31314, encryptionId=844f31314b7, topicName=凝血功能障碍)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=b75a34868560, createdName=ms6279672939590805, createdTime=Wed Mar 13 20:31:00 CST 2019, time=2019-03-13, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1269755, encodeId=91ae1269e552b, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=b85e313130a' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#凝血功能#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=49, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=31313, encryptionId=b85e313130a, topicName=凝血功能)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, 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authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=http://cacheapi.medsci.cn/resource/upload/20160905/IMG57CD39B82D12E7926.jpg, createdBy=ac2c1946830, createdName=青龙偃月, createdTime=Wed Sep 05 15:11:31 CST 2018, time=2018-09-05, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2018-09-05 青龙偃月

    好文章,谢谢分享!

    0

  8. 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authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=http://cacheapi.medsci.cn/resource/upload/20160905/IMG57CD39B82D12E7926.jpg, createdBy=ac2c1946830, createdName=青龙偃月, createdTime=Wed Sep 05 15:11:31 CST 2018, time=2018-09-05, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2018-09-05 青龙偃月

    好文章,谢谢分享!

    0

  9. 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createdBy=b09892, createdName=qidongfanjian, createdTime=Fri Sep 07 01:31:00 CST 2018, time=2018-09-07, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1284043, encodeId=f8e8128404325, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=cdb79594643' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#重症患者#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=24, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=95946, encryptionId=cdb79594643, topicName=重症患者)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, createdBy=6c3a189, createdName=longqijun248, createdTime=Fri Sep 07 01:31:00 CST 2018, time=2018-09-07, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1421183, encodeId=465a142118320, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=09d33294eb8' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#功能障碍#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=31, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, 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authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=http://cacheapi.medsci.cn/resource/upload/20160905/IMG57CD39B82D12E7926.jpg, createdBy=ac2c1946830, createdName=青龙偃月, createdTime=Wed Sep 05 15:11:31 CST 2018, time=2018-09-05, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2018-09-05 青龙偃月

    好文章,谢谢分享!

    0

  10. 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authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=http://cacheapi.medsci.cn/resource/upload/20160905/IMG57CD39B82D12E7926.jpg, createdBy=ac2c1946830, createdName=青龙偃月, createdTime=Wed Sep 05 15:11:31 CST 2018, time=2018-09-05, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2018-09-05 青龙偃月

    好文章,谢谢分享!

    0