脂肪干细胞在骨组织工程中的研究现状及应用前景

2017-06-09 李晓静,王佐林 口腔颌面外科杂志

由于肿瘤、外伤及感染等各种原因导致的骨缺损修复,是目前整形外科及颅颌面外科修复所面临的巨大挑战。传统修复技术是采用自体骨、异体骨或异种骨移植的方法进行修复,但其存在各种并发症,如有限的受体来源、导致二次损伤以及免疫排斥反应等。骨组织工程的诞生迅速地改善了传统骨移植存在的各种弊端,使其成为目前最有应用价值的研究课题。其中,种子细胞、支架材料以及生长因子是骨组织工程的3个基本要素。在骨组织工程中,

由于肿瘤、外伤及感染等各种原因导致的骨缺损修复,是目前整形外科及颅颌面外科修复所面临的巨大挑战。传统修复技术是采用自体骨、异体骨或异种骨移植的方法进行修复,但其存在各种并发症,如有限的受体来源、导致二次损伤以及免疫排斥反应等。骨组织工程的诞生迅速地改善了传统骨移植存在的各种弊端,使其成为目前最有应用价值的研究课题。其中,种子细胞、支架材料以及生长因子是骨组织工程的3个基本要素。在骨组织工程中,支架材料通常为疏松多孔的三维空间结构;其为新生的骨组织提供了足够的空间和机械支持,并可以作为细胞外基质成分或其替代成分,参与介导细胞间的信号转导作用;各种生长因子在种子细胞增殖、定向分化及蛋白合成过程中发挥重要的调控作用;干细胞具有自我更新能力和多向分化的潜能而成为骨组织工程中重要的种子细胞来源。


 
目前,干细胞的种类繁多,主要包括胚胎干细胞(embryonic stem cells,ESCs)、诱导多潜能干细胞(induced pluripotent stem cells,iPSCs)、骨髓间充质干细胞(bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells,BMMSCs)、脂肪干细胞(adipose-derived stem cells,ADSCs)等。其中,胚胎干细胞由于存在伦理争议和难以控制其分化方向等问题,应用受到了较大的限制。骨髓间充质干细胞是一种来源于成人骨髓的干细胞,由于具备较好的成骨分化潜能而备受关注,但是也存在诸多不足之处,如组织来源有限,取材时疼痛明显等。Zuk等最早发现了脂肪干细胞并将其进行分离培养,开启了脂肪干细胞研究的新时代。脂肪干细胞由于取材方便,来源广泛,增殖迅速,具有多向分化潜能等诸多优势而备受关注,成为骨组织工程理想的种子细胞,被认为是最有临床应用潜质的成体干细胞之一。
 
1.脂肪干细胞的生物学特征
 
1.1脂肪干细胞的分离与培养
 
脂肪干细胞主要来源于脂肪组织,与其他组织相比较,其来源非常广泛。脂肪组织是一个复杂的组织结构,主要包括超过90%的成熟脂肪细胞和少量的其他细胞。如脂肪前体细胞、成纤维细胞、血管平滑肌细胞、内皮细胞、淋巴细胞和脂肪干细胞等。位于皮下的白色脂肪组织较内脏周边的脂肪组织干细胞含量要高;棕色脂肪组织中同样存在干细胞。相关的研究已将脂肪干细胞从人、大鼠、小鼠、兔、狗、山羊、牛、马、猪等的脂肪组织中成功地分离出来。目前,脂肪干细胞的主要分离方法为胶原酶消化法结合密度梯度离心,也有文献报道,采用组织块培养法更容易获取脂肪干细胞。脂肪干细胞具有粘附生长的特性和成纤维状形态。按文献报道的方法,获得的大多为细胞混合物,往往还需要进行进一步的纯化处理,才能得到较为纯净的脂肪干细胞。
 
1.2脂肪干细胞的表面标志物鉴定
 
ADSCs具有与BMMSCs相似的表面标志物表达。相关研究认为其表面标记CD9、CD10、CD13、CD29、CD34、CD44、CD49、CD54、CD55、CD59、CD73、CD90、CD105、CD106、CD144、CD146、CD166等表达阳性,而表面标志CD11b、CD14、CD19、CD31、CD45、CD79a、CD80、CD177、CD133、HLA-DR、HLAⅡ、c-Kit、Lin、MyoD88、STRO-1等表达阴性。多数学者认为CD34在ADSCs早期表达明显,随着传代次数的增加其表达逐渐下降,而BMMSCs则CD34表达阴性。但是,目前尚没有明确的ADSCs特异性表面标志物用于其分离鉴定。
 
1.3脂肪干细胞的多向分化潜能
 
Zuk等在2001年首先提出ADSCs具有多向分化的潜能,在不同的诱导条件下能够分化为脂肪组织、骨组织、软骨组织、肌组织等中胚层来源组织。除此之外,相关学者进一步研究还发现ADSCs不但可以分化为中胚层来源的细胞类型,还可以分化为来源于外胚层的神经组织和皮肤组织以及来源于内胚层的肝细胞和胰腺β细胞等,在很大程度上地推动了再生医学的不断发展。
 
2.脂肪干细胞在骨组织工程中的应用及其机制研究
 
2.1ADSCs的培养模式对其成骨作用的影响
 
ADSCs是一种来源于成体脂肪组织中的干细胞,其取材方便,来源广泛,增殖迅速。2001年Zuk等首先发现了ADSCs具备多向分化的潜能并进行了相关的报道。因此,关于ADSCs的研究层出不穷,大量的研究聚焦于其成骨能力,目前其逐渐成为骨组织工程的热点种子细胞。在骨组织工程的研究过程中,模拟成骨细胞的最佳生长微环境对于人工骨组织的形成是至关重要的。但是对于ADSCs的传统静态二维细胞培养模式很难满足其三维立体生长要求,导致其失去细胞正常的形态与功能。生物反应器可以很好地模拟体内的微环境,为体外培养的ADSCs提供高效的营养与气体供应,实现种子细胞的大规模扩增,是目前研究较多的组织工程化骨体外构建的培养系统。
 
Shen等对ADSCs进行3D培养,研究细胞与细胞及细胞与细胞外基质间的相互作用,更加真实地模拟了ADSCs在体内的成骨情况,发现较之于传统的2D培养模式,3D培养模式使成骨能力和基质的矿化程度都有较大地提升。Yu等认为,ADSCs在3D的培养模式中的生长速度要显著地高于其在2D培养模式中的速度。Silva等将接种到生物活性玻璃支架上的ADSCs置于生物反应器中,并且给ADSCs施加一种液态剪切力,从而模拟天然骨组织中的生理液态流动作用,发现其可以显著提高ADSCs的成骨分化能力。Wang等同样发现,即使在没有支架材料的条件下,将ADSCs采用生物反应器悬浮培养可以提高其细胞活性和骨向分化能力。细胞共培养是20世纪80年代后期发展起来的一门技术,即将2种或2种以上细胞共同培养于同一环境中,可以更好地反映体内微环境中细胞间的相互作用关系。
 
在骨组织工程中,ADSCs与BMSCs等各种细胞进行共培养的研究层出不穷,以研究ADSCs与各种细胞间的相互作用对成骨作用的影响。Kim等发现,将ADSCs与BMSCs进行直接或间接共培养处理,可以显著提高BMSCs的血管形成和骨形成能力。Wang等认为,ADSCs与脐带血干细胞(HUVEC)进行共培养后,HUVEC分泌的某些细胞因子可能对ADSCs产生了一定的影响,促进其成骨分化和新骨形成,但是对成血管作用并无显著地影响。
 
2.2支架材料的选择对ADSCs成骨作用的影响
 
在骨组织工程中,存在各种形式的支架材料,根据存在形式可分为颗粒状支架和固体块支架。支架材料在骨组织工程中发挥了不可替代的重要作用,为种子细胞提供了很好的生化和机械支撑作用,在很大程度上决定了细胞的生物活性和骨修复能力。生物合成支架材料种类繁多,各种材料的表面微孔尺寸、孔隙率等对种子细胞的成骨及成血管能力均会产生一定的影响。根据材料的来源不同,支架材料可分为天然支架和合成支架两大类。天然无机支架材料主要来源于生物体的骨组织,经过去细胞处理后而获得,如脱钙骨(DMB)。天然有机材料主要包括胶原、纤维蛋白、壳聚糖等。
 
目前可用的生物合成支架材料主要包括陶瓷类材料、磷酸钙材料和有机高分子材料等。陶瓷类材料是由在生理环境中存在的离子(K、Ca、P、Mg、Na)或对人体组织有极小毒性的离子(Al、Ti)所构成。陶瓷类材料通常是指羟基磷灰石,由磷酸钙和硫酸钙构成,机械性能和降解能力随构成比例及处理方法的不同而不同。作为矿化骨的替代体,将陶瓷类材料与干细胞结合能够获得很好的成骨效果。与陶瓷材料类似,磷酸钙支架主要是由目前商品化的材料如β-磷酸三钙/TCP,羟基磷灰石/TCP等构成,所有的支架材料都尝试采用天然羟基磷灰石最相似的钙磷比例,以期获得较好地骨结合能力。
 
近年来,许多研究都致力于对有机合成高分子支架的研究开发与利用。这类材料的主要构成包括聚乙醇酸(PGA)、聚左旋乳酸(PLA)、聚乳酸-乙醇酸(PLGA)等。PLA、PGA的二维结构被证明能支持细胞粘附、生长、分化和发挥功能。两者都具有良好的生物相容性,降解产物无毒,已被美国食品与药物管理局(FDA)批准广泛用于医用缝线、暂时性支架和药物控释载体。另外,还有研究者对支架材料的加工处理方式进行了相关的改性处理,例如静电纺丝技术可以构建各种孔隙率和不同直径的支架,对ADSCs的成骨效果有很好地促进作用;还有学者采用CAD/CAM技术制备与骨组织缺损部位精确吻合的可吸收支架材料。
 
大量的研究报道,将ADSCs与不同类型的支架材料组合可以获得不同的成骨效果。Pullisaar等研究认为,将ADSCs接种到含有恰当浓度辛伐他汀涂层的TiO2的支架上,可以刺激OPN、OPG、VEGFA及OC等成骨相关生长因子的分泌,从而提高ADSCs的成骨分化程度。Zhan等认为,由PCL-α-CD为原料制备的静电纺丝纳米支架,可以促使成骨相关标记物的表达,增强成骨相关细胞外基质蛋白和细胞因子的分泌,从而达到促进ADSCs成骨作用的目的。Xia等通过纳米纤维多肽水凝胶与纳米HA/胶原构建新型的纳米支架材料(cnHAC),并通过体外和体内实验证实其可以显著提高ADSCs的成骨能力。Li等通过研究证实,碳纳米管有利于提高ADSCs的成骨分化能力。Polan等研究证实,经等离子气体处理过的PLA支架能够增强ADSCs的成血管能力,促进成骨分化。
 
2.3生长因子对ADSCs成骨作用的影响
 
在骨组织工程中,除了种子细胞和支架材料外,生长因子的存在对ADSCs的成骨效果有重要的作用。各种生长因子可以很好地模拟天然骨组织形成的自然微环境,为临床上基于骨组织工程的骨缺损治疗提供较好的应用前景。人体的血小板可以分泌超过20种的生长因子,主要包括血小板衍化生长因子(PDGFs)、成纤维细胞生长因子(FGFs)、肝细胞生长因子(HGF)、转化生长因子(TGFs)、血管内皮生长因子(VEGFs)等。这些因子不但可以影响移植干细胞的活性,而且对ADSCs的骨向分化有显著地影响。
 
相关的研究报道称,在ADSCs与支架构成的复合体中添加不同类型和浓度的生长因子对其成骨会产生不同的影响。多种生长因子的联合作用往往要优于单一生长因子的作用,生长因子的持续缓释作用优于短时释放,而且可以很好地模拟体内骨缺损愈合过程中的正常生理状态。有学者认为,有必要在骨组织工程中应用生物活性生长因子来增强ADSCs的成骨能力。Lin等报道,添加BMP-2与TGF-β3均可提高ADSCs的成骨及成软骨的效果。Leong等研究认为,ATF5转录因子可能是ADSCs增殖分化的一个“阀门”,当其表达下降时,ADSCs便停止增殖而进入分化阶段,最终促进其成骨分化。Cruz等认为,BMP-2、BMP-4和BMP-7均可参与ADSCs的骨向分化调控,但是人的ADSCs可以表达内源性的BMP-4和BMP-7,添加外源性的BMP-2不能很好地促进成骨分化能力。Jin等报道,当BMP-6与VEGF以合适的比例作用时,可以激活相似的细胞通路,从而增强ADSCs的成骨能力;人的PDGF-BB可以通过ERK信号通路促进ADSCs的成骨分化并抑制其成脂分化,增强骨的生成。
 
2.4ADSCs成骨相关机制的研究
 
尽管多种因素对ADSCs的成骨分化有促进或者抑制作用,但是其具体的作用机制目前却尚不清楚。为了更好地研究各种生物信号对ADSCs的成骨作用的机制,大量的研究开始聚焦于对各种生物信号通路的研究分析。目前,研究证实关于ADSCs的成骨相关信号通路主要包括,BMP信号通路、Wnt信号通路、ERK信号通路等。Yang等研究认为,循环张力加载对ADSCs成骨活性的提升主要是通过激活了干细胞BMP-2信号通路完成的。Gu等研究认为,含有镁黄长石的生物玻璃支架对ADSCs的成骨促进作用则是激活了MAPK家族中的ERK信号通路。Li等研究发现,rhPDGF-BB对ADSCs的促进成骨抑制成脂作用同样是ERK信号通路参与的结果。其研究发现,Wnt/β-catenin信号通路可以抑制ADSCs的成脂分化并促进其成骨分化作用。
 
3.目前存在的问题及展望
 
在骨组织工程领域中,关于ADSCs的研究虽然取得了前所未有的进展,但仍存在很多问题尚需解答。
 
3.1缺乏特异性细胞表面标志物,难以分离纯化
 
在目前的骨组织工程中,ADSCs大部分的表面标志物与BMSCs基本一致,但是目前尚未发现ADSCs特异性的表面分子标记物,因此缺乏特异性的鉴定方法。特异性的ADSCs细胞表面标志对于其分离、纯化至关重要,如何进一步分离纯化真正的干细胞是一个值得研究的课题。
 
3.2定向诱导分化的机制尚不明确,移植后是否会出现横向分化,仍有待于进一步研究
 
目前关于ADSCs的定向诱导分化的问题尚不十分清楚,如何将干细胞诱导成所需的细胞类型,尚需要大量的实验进行尝试,相关的机制研究加以证实,而移植后是否会出现横向分化的问题也是一项新的挑战。
 
3.3干细胞在体外长期培养的安全性
 
体外长期培养的安全性问题是至关重要的,需要建立一套安全完整的ADSCs储存和培养系统,减少细菌、真菌和病毒等对其造成的污染。除此之外,该系统还需要对培养体系中的氧气、乳酸及葡萄糖等浓度进行实时检测,以提高ADSCs的增殖能力和细胞活性,减少花费。将ADSCs用于临床病人的细胞治疗之前,需要食品与药物监督部门对其安全性和有效性进行判定。
 
3.4异体移植物的免疫反应
 
由于目前ADSCs培养有可能引入外源或异种蛋白,存在交叉污染和免疫排斥问题。无血清培养、重组蛋白技术和低温保存ADSCs可能有望于为该问题的解决提供新的思路与方法。
 
3.5尚未找到优秀的支架材料
 
骨组织工程要求支架材料具有足够的机械性能;适当的骨传导与骨诱导能力;可预测的生物降解性;多孔性;良好的塑形能力;降解产物无毒性;化学稳定性。但是目前还不存在一种支架材料能同时满足上述所有要求。目前有学者研究发现,合成高分子材料如PLLA、PLGA的降解产物,通常为酸性物质,可能会干扰支架的微环境,导致干细胞的功能紊乱或者死亡,局部组织的酸性可能导致炎症或纤维包裹现象。
 
解决脂肪干细胞目前存在的上述问题,将在很大程度推动其在骨组织工程中的应用与研究,使其成为骨组织工程的理想种子细胞,对于口腔颌面部各种原因导致的骨缺损的修复与再生具有重要的临床意义。

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    2017-06-13 大爰

    学习并分享!!!

    0

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    2017-06-09 楠博One

    学习谢谢分享

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