4种常见中枢神经系统感染性疾病鉴别诊断

2021-12-29 ANDs 网络

本文从中枢神经系统感染的临床症状、辅助检查,结合目前讨论较热的分子诊断方法学等方面引导临床医生在中枢神经系统感染的病原学鉴别中获得更精准的诊断依据,从而进行更精准的治疗。

中枢神经系统感染性疾病按病原学分为细菌性、结核性、病毒性、真菌性、寄生虫感染等,临床上最常见的是前4种。

现行的治疗手段往往是降低中枢神经系统感染,降低死亡率、减少并发症及后遗症、改善预后最关键的手段。

然而,从脑脊液中获取病原是当前研究的难点,特别是病毒、结核菌感染等难以在短期内准确分离、培养出病原,临床医生只能从一系列非特异性症状中将其分为脑膜炎、脑炎和脑脓肿,进一步明确病原需要更多方法包括影像学、血清学、腰椎穿刺获取脑脊液行检测等。

本文从中枢神经系统感染的临床症状、辅助检查,结合目前讨论较热的分子诊断方法学等方面引导临床医生在中枢神经系统感染的病原学鉴别中获得更精准的诊断依据,从而进行更精准的治疗。

 

 

一、脑膜炎

 

1.流行特征

脑膜炎可能源于各种各样的病原体,包括感染性和非感染性,本文中具体指的是起源脑膜的细菌、病毒或真菌等的急性感染,通常为菌血症、上呼吸道感染,牙齿或鼻窦感染的连续传播,细菌进入蛛网膜下腔时发生细菌性脑膜炎,导致脑水肿和脑膜水肿,并且一旦脑脊液置换的代偿机制被破坏,将导致颅内压增加。

细菌性脑膜炎的病情常较严重,尽管目前已应用大量抗菌药物,死亡率仍为13%~27%

随着脑膜炎球菌流脑多糖疫苗的普及,儿童脑膜炎尤其是5岁以下儿童脑膜炎的发病率下降>99%

然而目前包括革兰阴性菌和葡萄球菌在内的医院获得细菌引起的脑膜炎已超过奈瑟球菌和流感嗜血杆菌脑膜炎的发病率。

同时脑膜炎患者的平均年龄也从1986年的15个月增加到现在的35岁。

与细菌感染相比,由病毒感染引起的脑膜炎病情严重程度较低,最常见的原因是肠道病毒(EV)感染,如EV71、柯萨奇A和B病毒、埃可病毒、单纯疱疹病毒(HSV)1型和2型、巨细胞病毒(CMV)、EB病毒(EBV)、水痘带状疱疹病毒(VZV)、腮腺炎病毒和人免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)也可引起病毒性脑膜炎。

真菌性脑膜炎中最常见的仍然是隐球菌感染,但近年来随着器官移植患者的增多、免疫抑制剂的广泛应用及颅脑手术的广泛开展,隐球菌以外的其他真菌感染呈明显增多趋势,且病情往往较严重、诊断困难、预后差。

胡秀平等总结其院收治的35例经脑脊液涂片、培养阳性或脑组织病理、培养阳性确诊的中枢神经系统少见真菌感染,其中11例患者存在免疫力低下,原因包括实体器官移植、糖尿病、特发性CD4+T淋巴细胞减少症、长期应用糖皮质激素或免疫抑制剂等,另有18例患者存在颅脑手术外伤或其他部位感染等诱因,病原菌均为条件致病真菌,主要为曲霉菌和念珠菌,另由马尔尼菲青霉菌、无绿藻菌、赛多孢菌、波氏假阿利什菌引起的各1例病例。

 

2. 临床特征

发热、颈部僵硬和精神状态改变的脑膜炎典型症状并不经常在患者中同时出现,可能伴有其他相关症状包括恶心、呕吐、颅神经异常、皮疹和癫痫发作。

婴儿也可能出现非特异性症状,如嗜睡、烦躁不安。

成人常出现头痛(27%~81%)、恶心呕吐(29%~32%)和颈部疼痛(28%)。

发热(42%~97%)、颈部僵硬(15%-92%)和精神状态改变(32%~89%)的经典“三联征”在不同个体中出现的概率各不相同。

在某些情况下,99%~100%脑膜炎患者有经典“三联征”中至少1项,因此,如果急性头痛患者无颈部僵硬或发热,且正常发育,则被认为极不可能患有脑膜炎。

一项对以色列2个月~16岁患者的前瞻性研究也显示了这些非特异性症状在脑膜炎鉴别诊断中的价值。

除了经典的克氏征和布氏征外,引发脑膜刺激征的另一项操作是“头部颠簸”测试,嘱患者以2~3转/秒的速度在水平面上来回移动头部,如果患者头痛加重,则为阳性。

最初在1组既往有发热和头痛的患者中进行测试,对诊断脑脊液细胞增多症的敏感性为97%。

随后对美国急诊患者和印度ICU患者进行的两项研究显示,其敏感性较低(6%~21%),表明“头部颠簸”测试阴性结果亦不能有效排除脑膜炎。

 

3.鉴别诊断

临床医生在分析脑脊液常规生化检查结果时,尽管有些趋向性特征提示病毒或细菌感染,但并非绝对。

在一项包含696例经细菌培养证实为细菌性脑膜炎患者的前瞻性研究中,只有88%的患者有一个或多个脑脊液常规生化检测可预测细菌性脑膜炎。

有两项研究评估了脑脊液实验室检测在区分病毒性和细菌性脑膜炎方面的鉴别诊断价值,均发现经典的脑脊液参数包括显著升高的中性粒细胞计数、高蛋白或低葡萄糖可区分细菌性和病毒性脑膜炎,如50%的细菌性脑膜炎患者的中性粒细胞计数<440>500/mm3

有研究评估了脑脊液中乳酸盐在鉴别病毒性和细菌性脑膜炎中的价值。

脑脊液中由细菌无氧代谢或缺血性脑组织产生的乳酸盐不受血液中乳酸浓度的影响。

一项Meta分析评估了脑脊液中乳酸盐对鉴别细菌性和病毒性脑膜炎的准确性,发现在经革兰染色阳性或细菌培养证实的儿童和成人细菌性脑膜炎患者中,脑脊液中乳酸盐水平>3.9 mmoL/L的敏感性为96%(95%CI为93%-98%),特异性为97%(95%CI为96%-99%)。

在用抗生素预处理的亚组患者中,该试验的敏感性显著下降至29%(95%CI为23%-75%)。

二、脑炎

 

脑炎是脑实质的炎症,是一种病理学诊断,也通常用来描述一种临床综合征。

脑炎是与脑功能障碍的临床证据相关的脑实质中炎症过程的存在,被定义为脑功能的破坏不是由于直接的结构破环或炎症过程,而是通过代谢过程介导,可能由中毒、药物、全身性器官(如肝脏、胰腺)功能障碍或全身性感染引起。

神经系统的结构决定了一定程度的脑炎相关炎症常累及脑膜,因此脑炎患者常伴随脑膜炎的症状,“脑膜脑炎”经常被用来表示脑/脊髓和脑膜的炎症。

 

1.流行特征

全球报道的脑炎发病率因地点、人口及疾病定义和研究方法的不同而异。

西方国家报道的脑炎发病率在所有年龄段中为0.7~13.8/100 000,成人约为0.7~12.6/100 000,而儿童为10.5~13.8/100 000。

HSV脑炎是工业化国家散发病毒性脑炎(年发病率为1/250 000~500 000)中最常诊断的一种,约占其10%~15%。年龄特异性发病率呈双峰,在年轻人和老年人中都有高峰。大多数HSV脑炎由HSV一1引起,但约10%由HSV-2引起,后者通常发生在免疫受损的个体和新生儿中,并可引起传播感染。

VZV也是病毒性脑炎的相对常见病因,特别是在免疫受损患者中,而CMV脑炎几乎完全发生在这类患者中。

EV最常导致无菌性脑膜炎,但也可能是脑炎的重要病因。

在其他原因中,越来越多的学者认识到与电压门控钾通道复合物的抗体或N一甲基一D-天冬氨酸抗体(NMDA)受体相关的脑炎。

脑炎的其他非病毒感染原因可能包括结核分枝杆菌、立克次体和锥虫等感染。

 

2.临床特征

评估中枢神经系统感染患者的第一步是确定是否存在细菌性脑膜炎需要紧急经验性抗生素治疗,但如果还有脑实质累及局灶性神经系统或癫痫发作的证据,就必须考虑脑炎。

脑炎的临床表现与所累及的脑实质的潜在功能相关。

如由于HSV脑炎与颞叶密切相关,患者可以表现出人格改变、精神病、嗅觉或味觉幻觉,或可能最初被误诊为精神障碍。

某些病毒如西尼罗河病毒和东部马脑炎病毒,偏好于基底节和丘脑,并与震颤或其他运动障碍有关。

许多细菌和病毒包括汉赛巴尔通体、结核分枝杆菌、EV71型、黄病毒(如西尼罗河病毒、乙型脑炎病毒)和甲病毒(如东部马脑炎病毒)可引起脑干性脑炎,表现为植物神经功能紊乱、颅神经受累和呼吸动力障碍。

尽管存在这些相关性,但仍然不能作为准确鉴别脑炎病原学的证据。

 

3. 鉴别诊断

脑炎的鉴别诊断很广泛,包括感染性(病毒性、细菌性或寄生虫性)、感染后和非感染性(代谢性、毒性、自身免疫性、副肿瘤性)。

病毒感染与两种不同形式的脑炎有关:

第一种是由于病毒血症(如西尼罗病毒)或神经元组织中的病毒(如HSV、VZV)再激活导致脑实质的直接感染;

第二种是感染后脑脊髓炎,也称为急性播散性脑脊髓炎(ADEM),可能是一种自发性免疫现象,在儿童和年轻人发生病毒性疾病或接种疫苗后更常出现。

在我国,重症手足口病常由EV诱发神经源性肺水肿和脑膜脑炎最终致死,这被认为与宿主的易感基因相关口。

MRI在检测病毒性脑炎早期颅脑变化方面比CT更敏感。

在HSV脑炎中,约25%患者的颅脑CT异常,约90%患者的颅脑MRI异常,其中最具特征的是额叶和内颞叶的眼眶面水肿改变。

MRI还具有鉴别脑炎可能原因的优势,因此应该应用于所有疑似脑炎患者的鉴别诊断。

并非所有疑似脑炎患者都需要常规行脑电图(EEG)检查,但在以下情况下可考虑:

首先,对于昏迷或对外界刺激反应不良的患者,EEG可能显示需要抗癫痫治疗的非惊厥性癫痫持续状态;

其次,在部分有精神症状的患者中,EEG异常可能提示器质性疾病,如HSV脑炎与特征性非特异性弥散性高幅度慢波有关,有时具有颞叶棘波和周期性侧向癫痫样放电。

近年来,随着分子生物学和基因组学的快速发展,病毒性脑炎的鉴别诊断得到充分发展。

一项包含3231例脑炎、脑膜炎或脊髓炎患者的研究发现,46%病例经聚合酶链反应(PCR)鉴定为由VZV、HSV、EV和甲型流感病毒感染引起。

PCR技术的出现大大增加了病毒性脑炎的确诊率,另外多重PCR技术可在同一份脑脊液样本中寻找几种病毒,如在脑脊液样本中检测到多于一种病毒则须仔细评估检测到的病毒的意义。

患者的临床表现及脑脊液检测结果提示无菌性脑膜炎或脑炎,经上述进一步检查仍不能明确病原体者,则需要进行非感染性脑膜脑炎的鉴别诊断,见表1。

 

三、脑脓肿

 

1.流行特征:

50%以上的细菌性(化脓性)脓肿都有易播散的连续性感染灶,其中以中耳炎、乳突炎、鼻窦炎、脑膜炎和牙源性感染最为常见。

脑转移或血行播散感染的远处源头(如细菌性心内膜炎、从右向左分流的先天性心脏病、肺部感染)占高达1/3的病例。

通过穿透性损伤的外伤性接种同样可能导致脑脓肿形成。

绝大多数细菌性脑脓肿的病原为链球菌和葡萄球菌属,但在15%的病例中发现了革兰阴性菌(变形杆菌属、克雷伯菌属、大肠杆菌和肠杆菌),特别是在欧洲、亚洲和非洲。

在严重的免疫功能低下(如HIV感染、器官移植)患者中,脑脓肿的病原体多为诺卡菌、真菌(如曲霉属、假丝酵母属、新生隐球菌)和寄生虫(如弓形虫)。

据报道显示,脑脓肿患者的发病率为0.4-0.9/100 000,免疫功能低下人群的发病率更高,更常见于男性,其死亡率曾高达40%,但自2000年以来下降到10%,这主要是由于影像学技术和管理策略不断进步。

 

2.临床特征

与脑脓肿相关的头痛、发热和局灶性神经功能缺陷的经典“三联征”仅出现在20%的患者中心引,发热仅50%;

神经系统症状可以轻微甚至没有,持续数天到数周,表现为轻偏瘫、颅神经麻痹、步态障碍或颅内压增高的体征和症状(如恶心、呕吐、视神经乳头水肿、精神状态改变);

多达25%的患者可伴有局灶性或全身性癫痫发作。

额叶脓肿可能表现为头痛和行为改变;

枕叶脓肿、小脑脓肿或伴有脑膜炎或脑室内破裂的脓肿可表现出颈部僵硬。

大多数情况下,单独头痛可能是脑脓肿初期的唯一症状,特别是在最早期阶段。

在没有发现相关神经系统病变的情况下,对于临床怀疑脑脓肿的患者,特别是对免疫功能低下的患者,有必要对其病情进行评估。

 

3. 鉴别诊断

影像学检查对脑脓肿的诊断至关重要。

在脑炎后期,对比增强CT可以显示特征性脓肿的环形增强病灶和病灶包裹。

含有钆的增强MRI仍然是寻找和定性脑脓肿最敏感的检查,特别是在早期脑炎以及CT可视化可能受限的后颅窝(如脑干)中。

鉴于许多脑脓肿为血源性感染,血培养有助于约1/4患者确定致病微生物拉引。

在大多数情况下,脑脊液是无菌的,然而若怀疑病原伴随脑膜炎或脓肿破裂进入脑室,则腰椎穿刺有助于获得用于培养的脑脊液标本。

但是颅内占位患者行腰椎穿刺有导致脑疝的风险,因此颅内占位是腰椎穿刺的禁忌证之一。

临床医生必须权衡利弊,如果预测患者需要神经外科抽吸、引流或切除脓肿,则避免行腰椎穿刺。

 

四、艾滋病人群

 

HIV感染首先损害细胞介导的免疫功能,使患者容易感染病毒、真菌和寄生虫。

除普通人群中常见的中枢神经系统感染外,与艾滋病相关的中枢神经系统感染常常是机会性的,乳头瘤空泡病毒(JCV)感染形成进行性多灶性白质脑病(PML),引起罕见的亚急性脱髓鞘疾病,出现偏瘫、感觉异常、视野缺损、痴呆等症状,是短期内致死性的艾滋病相关中枢神经系统感染。

当艾滋病患者CD4+T淋巴细胞计数降至每微升200个以下时,中枢神经系统的组织胞浆菌病可由急性感染或原有潜伏感染再激活引起,而EBV、CMV和刚地弓形虫等潜伏病原体亦可再活化致各种脑炎。

有中枢神经系统感染症状或体征的晚期HIV感染者,出现精神异常、发热、头痛、癫痫发作或局灶性神经系统体征,应考虑机会性中枢神经系统感染。

具有无伴随症状的慢性头痛可以是中枢神经系统结核病的特征以及由新生隐球菌、艰难梭菌或荚膜藻所致的真菌性脑膜炎。

多发性脑脓肿成像和弓形虫血清免疫球蛋白G(IgG)阳性时应关注弓形虫脑病。

多达15%的艾滋病患者可能有多重感染。

由于艾滋病患者发生中枢神经系统感染时多已达晚期,因免疫力低下,其脑膜及脑实质炎症的脑脊液检测结果往往呈非特异性,给临床医生诊断增加困难,因此,常依赖于最终病原学的检测方法来明确诊断。

综上所述,在临床上,我们需要尽早明确诊断中枢神经系统感染的病原,但这在一定程度上仍然是有困难的,且目前临床上能够获得的检测样本有限,我们对目前临床上可进行的辅助检查进行总结,结果见表2,以期帮助I临床医生获得尽量多且有效的信息,并尽早开始经验性治疗对于改善患者预后仍然非常重要。

 

来源:杨柳青,刘映霞. 中枢神经系统感染性疾病的鉴别诊断[J]. 临床内科杂志,2017,34(11):725-729.

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    2021-12-30 责任人

    学习

    0

  8. 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channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=86, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=d25a5516768, createdName=一己怀, createdTime=Wed Dec 29 17:08:44 CST 2021, time=2021-12-29, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2021-12-30 斯坦星

    受用

    0

  9. 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channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=86, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=d25a5516768, createdName=一己怀, createdTime=Wed Dec 29 17:08:44 CST 2021, time=2021-12-29, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2021-12-29 listening

    受用👍

    0

  10. 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    2021-12-29 一己怀

    学习了

    0

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