人类的进化或许从未停止

2016-08-18 佚名 生物谷

自然选择是难以追上的,正如达尔文所说,一粒米的平衡都将会决定谁生谁死,而粮食的平衡就是选择的成本,在人类进化历史中,自然选择的代价往往就隐藏在了每年全世界死亡和出生的数百万人中,每个人都会死亡,但很多人在年轻的时候就不幸离世了,这些人或多或少是因为特定疾病、交通事故、药物过量而死亡,而这些死亡原因同基因活性相联系通常具有很大挑战,同样地,仅仅通过比较父母亲和其后代基因的差别,以及大家族和小

自然选择是难以追上的,正如达尔文所说,一粒米的平衡都将会决定谁生谁死,而粮食的平衡就是选择的成本,在人类进化历史中,自然选择的代价往往就隐藏在了每年全世界死亡和出生的数百万人中,每个人都会死亡,但很多人在年轻的时候就不幸离世了,这些人或多或少是因为特定疾病、交通事故、药物过量而死亡,而这些死亡原因同基因活性相联系通常具有很大挑战,同样地,仅仅通过比较父母亲和其后代基因的差别,以及大家族和小家族基因的差异,我们就能够理解在个体出生时自然选择是如何发挥作用的。

6年前,耶鲁大学的研究者Stephen Stearns及其同事对马萨诸塞州的弗雷明汉(Framingham)进行了长时间的研究调查,目的就是对多基因研究人群进行评估,来确定是否自然选择的效应可以被有效进行辨别。在过去70年里,从事公共健康的研究人员一直对弗雷明汉镇的居民进行监测,研究者记录下了研究研究对象的关键统计数据、血糖及胆固醇水平,希望能够理解引发人群患心脏病的因素,随着研究对象年纪的增长,研究者就开始对研究对象的儿女以及孙子辈进行研究,相关的研究记录就可以提供从1948年以来美国人群的健康信息。

当研究者Stearns等人对数据进行分析后,他们发现了自然选择正在发生的很多证据,相比高个女性而言,低个女性往往有更多的后代,而且相比体重较轻的女性而言,体重较重的个体往往也有更多的后代;对于男性而言,身高和体重和其生育能力并没有关联,而在男性和女性中高血糖或低血糖读数和后代较少有一定的关联,同时个体在生育其第一个孩子时的年龄似乎也会影响其一生的生育能力,生育第一个孩子时较年轻的个体往往拥有更多的家庭成员。

那么还有其它因素可以对人群进化进行塑造吗?生育时的年龄的确能够被文化因素所影响,为了获取更多详细的信息,研究者就需要将多种特性记录同基因自身相结合来进行深入研究,这类研究对于科学家们而言目前已经变得有可能进行了。比如上个月,哈佛大学的研究人员Jonathan Beauchamp就对招募进健康与退休研究(Health and Retirement Study)计划中的个体(居住在美国的欧洲后裔)进行研究,他们将基因突变体同相对寿命繁殖成功率(rLRS)进行对比,rLRS代表着个体所拥有的生物后代个体的数量;研究者Beauchamp发现,进化会选择性地对抗个体接受教育的程度,同时促进女性月经初潮的较高年龄,尽管研究者指出,文化和环境的因素会重写自然选择的效应,但这将会继续让人类不断进化。

研究者在血液中发现了人类自然选择的首个确凿证据,B型血在中亚地区比较常见,但在其它地区却非常罕见,除了ABO血型系统,研究者还鉴别出了新的血型,而且每一种都有着特殊的地理分布,其中一种最极端的血型就是达菲血型,其有三种不同版本或等位基因(好像ABO系统),其中一种类型为“无效”(null)达菲血型,这种血型在撒哈拉以南非洲地区95%以上的人群中都存在,但在祖先来自世界其它地区的人群中却非常罕见。

除了血液类型,研究者还调查了血液病和血液异常情况的进化,其中一种最有趣的就是葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶的缺失 (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase),G6PD可以帮助维持红细胞的功能,该酶水平不足会偶然间引发严重甚至致死性的健康问题,但其最著名的是会引发酶类缺失患者对蚕豆产生反应;其它的血液类型包括镰状细胞遗传性状、血红蛋白产生量减少、溶血性贫血及产生异常的血红蛋白。通过检测这些状况出现的频率,研究者发现,这些变化往往会同历史上常见的疟疾爆发区域相一致,深入研究后研究者揭示了血红蛋白的微小改变如何阻碍疟原虫破坏红细胞,而达菲血型无效等位基因则可以帮助携带者抵御疟疾,该基因的FYA和FYB版本可以导致红细胞表面的分子在炎性反应中发挥作用,但却会提供一种用来攻击间日疟原虫的新方法,缺失这些分子的人群则会避免间日疟原虫的感染。

当血液类型和异常的分布成为在近代人群中鉴别出的首个进化模式后,或许最著名的就是人们在婴儿期以后消化出现的消化牛奶的能力了,来自人类和其它类型哺乳动物乳汁中大约30%的卡路里都来自乳糖,而且利用乳糖中储存的能量机体的消化系统才能够将乳糖分解为两个化学亚基:半乳糖和葡萄糖,这种化学反应是通过乳糖酶来催化完成的,在大多数物种中,乳糖酶仅仅在断乳前的个体机体中表达,这就会使得成年人往往不能消化乳糖。

乳糖耐受性是近代人类遭遇的最大挑战,而且研究人员通过对直接来自古老骨骼残留物中的DNA分析来调查乳糖耐受产生的机制,首先进行这项实验的就是来自古腾堡大学(Johannes Gutenberg University)的科学家;在7000年前,欧洲古老的祖先通过捕猎、打渔及“聚会”(gathering)来生活,其并不进行耕种或是驯养动物,对这些人群的残留物进行基因测序分子也从未得到关于乳糖耐受性的相关证据,仅仅当人类开始养牛后才会产生促进乳糖耐受性上升的基因突变。一旦在远古人群中出现这种状况,患乳糖耐受性的人群就会以每一代10%的比率进行增长。

实际上,乳糖耐受性出现的频率在某些地方,甚至是过去2000年里一直处于不断上升的状态,来自斯坦福大学的研究人员在一项最新研究中就对来自英国超过3000份人类基因组样本进行分析来观察乳糖耐受性基因的选择性效应,他们发现,从罗马时代开始,乳糖耐受性就已经成为英国人群中最大的单一改变了,而且相比基因组中的其它任一等位基因而言,乳糖耐受性发生的频率都会不断增加。

乳糖酶的例子联系着人群和其对文化的创新,但其中一个重要方面却是有误导性的,同时也是不太好理解的,并不像乳糖耐受性,许多人类机体的特性并不是单一基因作用的产物,而是多个基因互相作用的结果,因此对人类的这些特性进行研究似乎就显得有些困难了。

肤色就是一个典型的例子,其中人群间最明显的生理性差异,肤色可以被超过24个基因所影响,这些基因可以产生黑色素并且调节不同组织中黑色素的水平,当然这些基因的改变会干扰机体中真黑素的产生,从而使得皮肤携带大量泛红的色素—褐黑素,导致多种肤色及颜色模式的出现,不如雀斑;尽管存在复杂的遗传特性,但肤色往往会与进化模式保持一致,祖先居住在热带地区的人们更趋向于拥有较深肤色,而居住在北方和南方的人们的肤色就趋向于浅一些。

其它类型的人类肤色也在不断进化之中,在最近的一项研究中,研究者Field及其同事通过研究发现,和皮肤及眼睛色素相关的多个基因在英国人的祖先机体中会明显增加,这些特性包括和眼睛蓝色相关的一个基因,以及在金发人群中发现的两个基因,从罗马时代开始英国人就经历着大范围的移民,但人群中的遗传改变却并不因移民而变化。身高是近些年人类持续进化的另一个复杂特性,北欧人略高于南欧人,通过分析两种人群的基因差异,研究者发现,其身高的差异主要是由自然选择来驱动的,即在过去2000年里居住在北方的人群往往有着较高的身高,然而这种趋势并非在全世界都是这样的,研究者在美国进行的研究发现,在过去几十年里,低个子女性往往有着较好的生育优势;同时在冈比亚进行的一项研究结果表明,高个子女性有着较多的后代。

如果所有最近的自然选择有共同点的话,那么我们今天看到的周围出现的许多人类多样性或许都是最近才出现的,每个个体中超过90%的遗传性都来自于10万年前的撒哈拉以南非洲地区,15年前,许多科学家们就发现人类的进化或将逐渐结束,大约在700万年前,同我们的共同祖先黑猩猩和矮黑猩猩发生背离后,人类就经历了机体尺寸、饮食、行为和大脑尺寸的巨大变化,巨大的进化创新标志着人类直立行走、使用工具、文化及语言发展的开始,而所有的这些都是在10万年前发生的。

从化石记录上我们可以看到一种戏剧性的画面,很多科学家们就推测,人类史前史的最后阶段是相当乏味的,纵观大部分的基因组,世界上各个地方的人群都非常相似,而且现代人在文化和语言上都发生了相当深远的改变,但是这些差异大部分都已经被研究了。尽管如此,全世界的人类也都经历着非常不同的选择性压力,实际上存在的文化差异似乎可以加速某些种类的进化改变,对动物的驯化往往会导致乳制品被发明。

进入新的生态系统往往要求来自不断增长人口的新适应,即从居住在高纬度浅肤色的人群维持维生素D的产生到居住在高海拔地区人群的氧气代谢的改善。

自然选择是变幻无常的,确保我们能够在祖先环境中生存的行为或许在现今状况下并不具有优势,人类基因组在过去几千年里如何发生改变的新证据就意味着一系列大量关键性的进化改变,而这就使得我们的某些生物学特性能够同祖先区分开来,今天毫无疑问,我们一直处于进化之中。

参考资料:

【1】S.G. Byars et al., “Natural selection in a contemporary human population,” PNAS, 107:1787-92, 2010.

【2】J.P. Beauchamp, “Genetic evidence for natural selection in humans in the contemporary United States,” PNAS, doi:10.1073/pnas.1600398113, 2016.

【3】L.H. Miller  et al., “The resistance factor to Plasmodium vivax in blacks: The Duffy-blood-group genotype, FyFy,” N Engl J Med, 295:302-04, 1976.

【4】J.D. Batchelor et al., “Red blood cell invasion by Plasmodium vivax: Structural basis for DBP engagement of DARC,” PLOS Pathog, 10:e1003869, 2014.

【5】Y. Field et al., “Detection of human adaptation during the past 2,000 years,” BioRxiv, doi:10.1101/052084, 2016.

【6】A. Courtiol et al., “The Demographic transition influences variance in fitness and selection on height and BMI in rural Gambia,” Curr Biol, 23:884-89, 2013.

【7】G. Stulp, L. Barrett, “Evolutionary perspectives on human height variation,” Biol Rev, 91:206-34, 2016.

【8】Humans Never Stopped Evolving

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    学习了,分享一下!

    0

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    2016-08-20 136****0753赵

    值得学习

    0

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    2016-08-19 1dd8a7c5m95(暂无匿称)

    学习了,赞一个!

    0

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    2016-08-19 1dd8a7c5m95(暂无匿称)

    学习了,赞一个!

    0

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    2016-08-19 1dd8a7c5m95(暂无匿称)

    学习了,赞一个!

    0

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    2016-08-18 doctorJiangchao

    继续学习

    0

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    2016-08-18 doctorJiangchao

    继续关注

    0

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