Mol Metab:GLP-1在阿尔茨海默病中通过促进有氧糖酵解,提高星形胶质细胞对神经元的支持能力

2022-09-16 brainnew神内神外 brainnew神内神外

阿尔茨海默病的特征是β-淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)肽的过量生产,一直以来,Aβ毒性被认为是AD的主要原因,近年来研究人员发现脑能量不足和代谢改变对AD的影响不容小觑。

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’sdisease, AD)的特征是β-淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)肽的过量生产,一直以来,Aβ毒性被认为是AD的主要原因,近年来研究人员发现脑能量不足和代谢改变对AD的影响不容小觑。

探讨了GLP-1在AD中的糖酵解调节作用,并揭示其神经保护机制。

研究发现GLP-1通过增强有氧糖酵解和减少氧化磷酸化作用改善5×FAD小鼠的认知功能水平和大脑中的氧化应激,并且可缓解Aβ诱导的星形胶质细胞糖酵解下降,从而导致OXPHOS水平下降以及活性氧(ROS)的产生。其机制涉及GLP-1激活PI3K/Akt通路。该研究揭示了GLP-1调节星形细胞糖酵解的能力,提供了GLP-1在AD中的神经保护机制并为AD的能量调节治疗提供了可行性的支持。

实验设计实验结果

1. GLP-1改善了5×FAD小鼠的空间认知能力

5×FAD小鼠是转染了5个FAD突变的转基因小鼠,在两月龄发展为大脑淀粉样斑块和脑胶质瘤。MWM测试是一种啮齿类动物的空间学习能力的可靠评估方法,MWM实验发现,4月龄5×FAD小鼠出现空间认知受损,利拉鲁肽饲喂8周后,小鼠平台搜索时间缩短,表明小鼠认知能力有所提高(图1)。

作者通过尼氏染色观察到神经元数量,然后通过透射电镜可以观察到突触结构。如图1D所示,利拉鲁肽处理增加了皮质区和海马区存活的神经元数量,并且该位置的神经元具有更多规则的突触结构和较厚的突触后密度(图1),突触标记蛋白PSD95的表达水平SYN也升高(图1E)。这些结果表明,GLP-1对5×FAD小鼠神经元存活和功能具有保护性作用。

接下来,作者进行了蛋白质组学分析来比较三组的蛋白质组学概况,以期研究GLP-1神经保护作用的具体机制。

图1 GLP-1改善了5×FAD小鼠的空间认知能力

MWM对小鼠认知功能的评价,包括逃逸潜伏期(A)和穿越靶点(A)探针试验期间象限(B)和探针试验中不同组小鼠代表性游泳轨迹(C)。MWM试验中n=10。(D)代表不同组皮质尼氏染色图像。比例尺:500μm;放大后的图像显示在下一栏,比例尺:200μm,n=3。(E)蛋白质Western blotting检测PSD95和SYN在小鼠皮质中的表达,n=3。(F)下皮层区突触形态的代表性图像TEM。红色箭头表示突触。比例尺:1μm,n=3。

2. GLP-1改变了5×FAD小鼠的大脑蛋白质组学特征

在蛋白质组学分析中,作者在3组小鼠的皮质区共鉴定了7013个蛋白,其中有300种蛋白质在WT组和AD组之间有差异表达,有275个蛋白在AD组和AD+Lira组之间表达存在差异(图2C和图2D),49种蛋白质在三组比较中具有显著差异。作者采用KEGG富集分析法,对组间差异表达的蛋白通路进行富集,图2A和图2B列出了排在前10位的富集通路。

AD脑内代谢通路发生明显改变,而且在GLP-1处理后也发生改变,经进一步检测,GLP-1处理的AD组中几种生物能蛋白的表达发生变化,如PDK2, NDUFB2,ACAA2和GSTK1表达下降,而GSTK1出现上调(图2E)。PDK2是葡萄糖代谢的调节器,其依赖于PDH的磷酸化状态,而葡萄糖代谢可以通过糖酵解或OXPHOS程度表现。ACAA2参与线粒体脂肪酸-β氧化,而GSTK1对维持线粒体稳态至关重要。

除上述蛋白外,其他14种参与蛋白质运输、蛋白水解以及蛋白质糖基化,并在细胞增殖中部分逆转GLP-1的作用。其他受影响的细胞结构,如质膜、细胞骨架、树突和核质均在图2F显示。

图2 GLP-1改变了5×FAD小鼠大脑的蛋白质组学图谱

(A-B) KEGG富集的前10位小鼠皮质蛋白表达变化的火山图差异表达蛋白(DEPs),红色的强度表示KEGG通路的意义。(C) DEPs富集于皮质。(D)三组DEPs的层次聚类热图,每个部分的颜色与蛋白质变化的意义成正比;红色表示上调,蓝色表示下调。(E)用单因素方差对皮层中ACCA2、GSTK1、NDUFB2, PDK2等蛋白质水平进行定量分析。(F) DEPs蛋白-蛋白相互作用网络分析。节点表示DEPs,节点颜色表示蛋白质相互作用计数的增加(红色)到减少(绿色)。线条粗细表示交互的相关度。

3. GLP-1改善5×FAD小鼠皮质的有氧糖酵解以及减轻氧化应激

作者评估了三组中糖酵解和OXPHOS水平,发现在AD组大脑中糖酵解被抑制,而OXPHOS上调。酶的表达水平体现了糖酵解和OXPHOS水平(图3),低氧诱导因子-1 α (HIF-1α)已被证实能够上调糖酵解酶;己糖激酶(HK)磷酸化葡萄糖形成葡萄糖-6-磷酸,然后作用于6-磷酸果糖-2 -激酶/果糖-2,6-二磷酸酶3 (PFKFB3)和丙酮酸激酶(PKM)形成丙酮酸,丙酮酸再被乳酸转化为乳酸脱氢酶A (LDHA);PKM1/2,PKM2和PFKFB3的细胞含量在AD组大脑中减少(图3A),表明糖酵解的下调;然而,OXPHOS水平在AD组大脑中上调,表现为PDK水平的下降和PDH磷酸化水平的升高(图3E)。

OXPHOS水平上调、ATP产生下降和ROS水平上升(图3H和图3F),同时谷胱甘肽含量减少(图3G),表明了过度的氧化还原状态。GLP-1处理增加了糖酵解酶的表达,自由基氧磷水平减轻,减少了氧化应激以及增加了ATP的产生。

PI3K/Akt通路深度参与能量过程,而且已有研究发现Akt磷酸化的减少与AD认知功能受损有关。研究发现GLP-1激活了PI3K/Akt通路,而在AD组小鼠中被抑制(图3I),作者假设这可能有助于GLP-1在糖酵解调节中的作用机制。

图3 GLP-1改善了5×FAD小鼠的有氧糖酵解并减轻了皮质中的氧化应激

(A-D)三组皮质糖酵解水平的分析,通过Western blotting检测糖酵解酶的相对表达(A);乳酸的糖酵解产物(B)和NAD+(C-D)。(E-H)三组磷酸化水平,包括PDK2和PDH的相对表达(E);皮质内ROS(F)、GSH(G)和ATP(H)的含量。(I)Western blotting检测皮层中PI3K和Akt相对表达。

4. GLP-1改善了有氧糖酵解,并且缓解了星形胶质细胞的氧化应激

星形胶质细胞主要利用糖酵解产生ATP,大量研究表明星形胶质细胞的功能失常导致了AD。为了评估GLP-1对星形胶质细胞的影响,作者构建了一个用可溶性寡聚物处理星形胶质细胞的AD细胞模型Aβ1-42。

与动物实验结果一致的是,GLP-1缓解了Aβ诱导的糖酵解抑制,并增加了糖酵解酶如PKM2和HK2的表达(图4A)以及糖酵解产物(图4B-D)。GLP-1增加了Aβ处理的星形胶质细胞中Akt磷酸化水平(图4E);然而,当PI3K/Akt通路被PI3K抑制剂LY294002抑制时,GLP-1刺激产生的糖酵解作用减少。LY294002降低了PDK2和HIF1α的表达(图4E和图4I),Ldha、Pkm和己糖激酶II的转录被抑制(图4J);细胞内乳酸和NAD+含量在PI3K/Akt通路抑制的情况下也降低(图4F-H)。

然而,OXPHOS的作用则出现相反的结果,海马实验检测了不同组的OXPHOS水平,均通过实时测量氧气消耗率(OCR)进行评估。寡霉素是一种ATP合酶抑制剂;氰化物对三氟甲氧基苯基腙(FCCP)是一种H离子载体;鱼藤酮/抗霉素A是一种电子传递链抑制剂,加入其可以评估基本或最大OCR。

如图4K所示,Aβ组最大OCR升高,且随时间增加,线粒体ATP的产生增加,暗示线粒体激活糖酵解内流不足时的OXPHOS水平和能量供应很低。GLP-1降低了OXPHOS并且减轻线粒体压力,但是,当PI3K/Akt通路被抑制时,OXPHOS水平反弹,这些结果揭示了PI3K/Akt通路在GLP-1调节糖酵解和OXPHOS中的作用。

星形胶质细胞在突触间隙中吸收谷氨酸,突触间隙发生转变谷氨酰胺合成酶(GS)转化成谷氨酰胺,然后输送到神经元,或谷氨酸可以代谢为a-酮戊二酸和inter-TCA。研究发现,Aβ处理导致星形细胞谷氨酸摄取下降,同时谷氨酸的一种类型转运蛋白EAAT2表达下降;然而,GLP-1并没有改善星形胶质细胞的谷氨酸摄取能力,虽然它上调了GS的表达(图5)。 

图4 GLP-1通过PI3K/Akt通路改善星形胶质细胞有氧糖酵解,降低氧化应激

5 mM Aβ1-42处理星形胶质细胞24小时或者处理Aβ1-42处理之后用100nM GLP-1孵育2 h。GLP-1和Aβ1-42孵育1小时后,在Aβ+GLP-1+ LY组中,用10 mM的LY294002预处理星形胶质细胞。(A-D)评价三组糖酵解水平,包括Western blotting检测糖酵解酶的相对表达量(A);乳酸糖酵解产物(B)和NAD+ (C-D)。(E) Western blotting检测皮层PI3K、Akt、PDK2和HIF-1α的相对表达。(F-H)评价糖酵解水平,包括乳酸糖酵解产物(F)和NAD+ (G-H)。(I)三组中HIF-1α和GFAP的免疫荧光图像。(J)糖酵解酶的转录水平,包括Hk1, Hk2, Pkm, Pfkmb3和Ldha。(F)评估氧化磷酸化水平。在海马检测中加入寡霉素、FCCP和鱼藤酮/抗霉素A,计算消耗率(OCR)、最大OCR和线粒体ATP产量的过程。

图5 GLP-1并没有增强体外Aβ处理星形胶质细胞的谷氨酸摄取

星形胶质细胞用5 mM Aβ1-42处理24小时或用100 nM GLP-1孵育24小时。(A-D) Western blotting评价EAAT1、EAAT2和GS的表达水平。(E)谷氨酸被星形胶质细胞吸收不同的基团。

5. GLP-1通过提高星形胶质细胞的有氧糖酵解改善了星形胶质细胞对神经元的支持作用

星形胶质细胞通过提供乳酸来支持神经元的生存和功能作为神经元的能量底物,维持氧化还原平衡。我们加入2-脱氧葡萄糖(2-DG)来评价其对神经元的影响。当GLP-1在星形细胞糖酵解中的作用被抑制时,如乳酸和NAD+水平下降(图6A-C)。2-DG被迅速地跨膜运输磷酸化形成不能磷酸化的2-脱氧葡萄糖-6-磷酸,然后被糖酵解酶进一步代谢,从而阻碍了糖酵解过程。GLP-1缓解OXPHOS的激活阻碍了2-DG的存在,表现为PDH磷酸化降低(图6D)和OCR值升高(图6J-M)。与此一致,线粒体总ROS的产生升高(图6F-H)和谷胱甘肽水平下降(图6I),表明星形胶质细胞的氧化还原平衡状态的破坏。

为了评估GLP-1对星形胶质细胞神经元支持作用的影响,我们进行了星形细胞-神经元共培养Transwell实验。Aβ处理星形胶质细胞降低了细胞的存活率,而GLP-1增加了星形胶质细胞的在相同的实验条件下支持神经元的能力(图7A-B)。GLP-1处理促进了神经元的轴突长度和树突生长,而2-DG消除了GLP-1产生的糖酵解的抑制(图7C-H)。PSD95和SYN的表达通过GLP-1处理后表达增加并通过2-DG处理后表达下调(图7I-K)。这些结果强调星形细胞糖酵解在神经元生长中的重要性以及GLP-1通过增强星形胶质细胞的支持能力增加有氧糖酵解。

图6 糖酵解抑制后星形胶质细胞的OXPHOS水平和氧化应激升高

用5 mM Aβ1-42处理星形胶质细胞24小时或用100 nM的GLP-1在Aβ1-42处理前2 h处理细胞。在Aβ+GLP-1+2-DG组,在孵育GLP-1和Aβ1-42之前先用10mM 2-DG处理星形胶质细胞。(A-C)乳酸糖酵解产物(A)和NAD+(B和C)。(D) Western blotting检测PDK2和PDH的相对表达。(E)星形胶质细胞在不同的组中ATP产量。(F-H)各组总ROS和线粒体ROS荧光图像。线粒体用MitoTracker Green标记;总ROS和线粒体ROS分别用DCFH-DA和MitoSox标记。DCFH-DA比例尺:100mm;对于MitoTracker Green和MitoSox,标尺:10mm。(J-M)各组基础耗氧量(OCR)、最大OCR和线粒体ATP的产生。

图7 GLP-1通过提高星形胶质细胞的有氧糖酵解,提高了星形胶质细胞对神经元的支持能力

神经元与星形胶质细胞共培养,并用Aβ1-42、GLP-1或2-DG处理。(A-B)用Hoechst33342和PI染色神经元,评估细胞存活率。标尺:75 μm。(C-H)大脑皮质神经元荧光图像(C)。Sholl神经突交点分析(D);神经突长度(E)、次生分枝数(F)、体细胞突起数(G)、轴突长度(H)通过ImageJ软件与Sholl分析插件进行评估。每组分析不少于100个细胞。比例尺:25μm。(I-K)Western blotting检测皮质神经元PSD95与SYN的相对表达。

讨论

在本研究中,我们发现在AD动物模型和星形胶质细胞模型中GLP-1介导了葡萄糖代谢的改变。增强糖酵解流量伴随着糖酵解产物(乳酸和NAD+)产量的增加以及OXPHOS被抑制的情况,线粒体ROS水平降低。GLP-1对代谢表型调节的影响与PI3K/Akt的激活密切相关,从OXPHOS到有氧糖酵解的转变增加了星形胶质细胞支持神经元的能力,表现为增加的细胞活力和旺盛的树突和轴突生长。

本研究首次证实了GLP-1在星形胶质细胞中改变细胞葡萄糖代谢中的作用,揭示了GLP-1改善AD患者认知功能的新机制。在我们的研究中,GLP-1介导了从OXPHOS到糖酵解转变的动物和细胞模型,这一效应可能就是GLP-1神经保护的作用机制之一。GLP-1已被发现通过多种生物能量通路上调细胞能量消耗,并能改变能量代谢表型缺血缺氧条件下的糖酵解。该机制帮助细胞在有氧情况下应对能量危机,例如当氧气供应不足时,如心肌缺血损伤,提高细胞对不利条件的适应能力增强细胞存活率。

老年神经退行性疾病(NDAs),特别是AD和帕金森病,葡萄糖摄取缺陷和ATP产生障碍的是疾病进展的驱动力。乳酸由星形胶质细胞产生,当神经元面临能量障碍时,糖酵解是一种重要的替代途径,在NDAs处理后发现了糖酵解增强。在AD的前期作者发现HIF-1α表达上调以及几种糖酵解的表达酶增加,这是星形胶质细胞中和Aβ的毒性的机制之一;然而,Aβ和tau的积累抑制了糖酵解,这种代偿作用在AD晚期消失,这种情况在本研究中也被证实,Aβ和tau的积累会导致能量不足状态,并加剧氧化应激,GLP-1通过改善星形细胞的糖酵解过程,增加乳酸生成并减轻能量危机。

GLP-1在AD中增强有氧糖酵解的作用与PI3K/Akt通路密切相关,深度参与能量代谢与细胞存活率。GLP-1已被报道在β细胞和神经细胞中抑制PI3K/Akt通路,其能抑制PDK抑制剂FOXO并降低OXPHOS水平。与之前的研究一致,我们发现GLP-1使Akt磷酸化水平增加,导致更高程度的PDH磷酸化,它能下调OXPHOS并减少氧化应激;此外,Akt的磷酸化导致mTOR-HIF-1α通路的激活,诱导糖酵解酶的表达增加和糖酵解增加。在最近的一项研究中,Sung等人发现mTOR-HIF-1α通路介导的代谢重编程是小胶质细胞激活的必要条件,突出了有氧糖酵解在神经胶质中的功能。在本研究中,我们报道了PI3K/Akt通路参与的GLP -1介导的代谢调控机制。

有氧糖酵解的提高通过促进神经突生长增强星形胶质细胞对神经元的支持能力。人们已经假定有氧糖酵解通过提供乳酸保护能量缺乏的神经元,大量证据表明乳酸对应激神经细胞具有有益影响。研究表明,补充乳酸可减少缺氧缺血性脑病的脑损伤,提高海马乳酸浓度,改善神经发生,减轻抑郁综合征。也有报道说,锻炼可以通过产生乳酸来提高认知能力,乳酸会穿过血脑屏障并促进BDNF的生产。

虽然有些报道指出,通过电子激活和糖酵解过程产生乳酸导致神经元的糖酵解能力的提高对于神经元的活动并不是必须的。事实上,慢性糖酵解增强对于神经元可能是有害的,正如Herrero-Mendez的研究显示,对于神经元来说糖酵解通过上调Pfkfb3的表达导致氧化应激和凋亡。作者认为在AD中,当葡萄糖代谢受阻和线粒体功能损伤时,胶质细胞糖酵解过程中乳酸的穿梭对神经元的生存越来越重要,其起到了能量替代作用。GLP-1可部分恢复星形胶质细胞的糖酵解功能并增加乳酸通量,这有助于缓解神经元的能量危机。

在我们的研究中,AD小鼠大脑中的乳酸水平在WT和AD+Lira组中没有显著差异,而Aβ处理星形胶质细胞导致乳酸含量显著降低。这可能是由星形细胞-神经元相互作用引起的。乳酸和NAD+可以被神经元吸收,进入TCA循环,从而使这些物质在大脑中的水平受到代谢水平的影响,Richard等人也报道,虽然大脑糖酵解在不同疗程的AD中有所差异,但是乳酸含量基本没有变化。

改善细胞氧化还原状态的平衡是GLP-1的神经保护机制。糖酵解的增加提高了星形胶质细胞的抗氧化能力,降低了活性氧的产生。星形胶质细胞被认为是抵御氧化损伤的主要防线,谷胱甘肽是星形细胞解毒的关键成分过程。神经元本质上依赖于OXPHOS,但抗氧化能力较低,星形胶质细胞产生谷胱甘肽是神经元对抗氧化应激的重要保护机制。

结论

综上所述,本研究揭示了GLP-1的神经保护机制与其促进有氧糖酵解和缓解OXPHOS激活并与激活PI3K/Akt途径密切相关。本研究表明,能量调节可以有效地减缓AD进展,还阐明了通过能量调节或与其他抗Aβ药物联合治疗AD的可能性。

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topicName=GLP-1)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=f8f23732777, createdName=yibei, createdTime=Wed Nov 10 01:04:01 CST 2021, time=2021-11-10, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1470624, encodeId=40fe14e0624cb, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=45a79e7788c' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#阿尔茨海默#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=33, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=97778, encryptionId=45a79e7788c, topicName=阿尔茨海默)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, createdBy=c5917090900, createdName=yhj-time, createdTime=Wed Nov 10 01:04:01 CST 2021, time=2021-11-10, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2022-09-17 jin321

    很详细

    0

  2. 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topicName=GLP-1)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=f8f23732777, createdName=yibei, createdTime=Wed Nov 10 01:04:01 CST 2021, time=2021-11-10, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1470624, encodeId=40fe14e0624cb, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=45a79e7788c' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#阿尔茨海默#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=33, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=97778, encryptionId=45a79e7788c, topicName=阿尔茨海默)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, createdBy=c5917090900, createdName=yhj-time, createdTime=Wed Nov 10 01:04:01 CST 2021, time=2021-11-10, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2022-04-09 guojianrong
  3. 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  4. 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topicName=GLP-1)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=f8f23732777, createdName=yibei, createdTime=Wed Nov 10 01:04:01 CST 2021, time=2021-11-10, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1470624, encodeId=40fe14e0624cb, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=45a79e7788c' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#阿尔茨海默#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=33, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=97778, encryptionId=45a79e7788c, topicName=阿尔茨海默)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, createdBy=c5917090900, createdName=yhj-time, createdTime=Wed Nov 10 01:04:01 CST 2021, time=2021-11-10, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2022-04-16 一闲
  5. 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  6. 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  7. 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  8. 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  9. 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    2021-11-10 yibei
  10. 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